AP Biology Review Flashcards

Flashcards for AP Biology Review covering key vocabulary terms from the lecture notes.

Monosaccharide

Monomer of carbohydrates; examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage; examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Cellulose

Found in plant cell walls; a structural polysaccharide made of glucose monomers.

Chitin

Found in fungi cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons; a structural polysaccharide.

Starch

Storage polysaccharide found in plants.

Glycogen

Storage polysaccharide found in animals.

Amino Acid

Monomer of proteins; composed of a central carbon atom, a hydrogen atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group.

Peptide Bond

Bond between the carboxyl and amino groups of amino acids in a protein.

Primary Structure (Proteins)

The string of amino acids

Secondary Structure (Proteins)

Alpha helix or beta pleated sheet formed by hydrogen bonds between the protein backbone.

Tertiary Structure (Proteins)

Final 3D structure of a protein, resulting from various bonds between R groups.

Quaternary Structure (Proteins)

Structure formed by the interaction of multiple polypeptide chains.

Phospholipids

Lipids with a phosphate group attached to glycerol; major component of cell membranes.

Amphipathic

Having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.

Saturated Fatty Acid

Fatty acid with only single bonds between carbon atoms.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

Fatty acid with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

Steroids

Four fused rings; examples include hormones like testosterone and estrogen.

Nucleotide

Monomer of nucleic acids; composed of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Phosphodiester Linkage

Linkage between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group of another.

Purine

Double-ring nitrogenous bases; adenine (A) and guanine (G).

Pyrimidine

Single-ring nitrogenous bases; cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).

Cohesion

The tendency of water molecules to stick together due to hydrogen bonds.

Adhesion

The tendency of water molecules to stick to other polar substances.

Universal Solvent

Water is able to dissolve a variety of different substances.

Specific Heat

Amount of heat that must be absorbed or released to change the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.

Evaporative Cooling

The process by which water is released on a surface of an organism to absorb heat energy from the body.

Nuclear Envelope

Double membrane of the nucleus

Ribosomes

Synthesizes proteins

Mitochondria

Double membrane organelles in eukaryotic cells that are the site of oxidative phosphorylation.

Lysosome

Membrane-bound organelle that contains hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion.

Phagocytosis

The process by which prokaryotes take up and incorporate foreign DNA from the surrounding environment.

Pinocytosis

A process in which cells engulf liquid from the surrounding environment

Endocytosis

The cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the plasma membrane that pinch off to form vesicles that enclose the ingested material.

Exocytosis

The cellular process of expelling materials from within the cell to the extracellular fluid.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of lower water concentration.

Hypertonic Solution

A solution with a higher solute concentration compared to another solution.

Isotonic Solution

A solution with an equal solute concentration compared to another solution.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with a lower solute concentration compared to another solution.

Simple Diffusion

A type of passive transport that does not require energy

Facilitated Diffusion

A type of passive tranport that requires a transport protein

Active Transport

Requires energy input to move

Gibbs Free Energy

The amount of energy available to do work.

Endergonic Reaction

Describes a reaction that requires energy in order to proceed.

Exergonic Reaction

A chemical reaction where energy is released

Enzyme

A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

Inhibitor

A substance that binds to an enzyme and reduces its activity.

Denaturation

Loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor

Glycolysis

Is the first stage of cellular respiration; occurs in the cytosol.

Krebs Cycle

A series of chemical reactions that extract energy from molecules, releasing carbon dioxide and producing NADH and FADH2.

Electron Transport Chain

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy ultimately used to manufacture ATP.

Chemiosmosis

An energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP.

Photosynthesis

Biological process where plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and energy in the form of glucose.

Light Reactions

Part of photosynthesis where light provides the energy; occurs in the thylakoid membrane.

Calvin Cycle

Part of photosynthesis where carbon dioxide is converted into glucose; occurs in the stroma.

Ligand

Molecule that binds to a receptor

Protein Kinase

Enzymes that phosphorylates relay molecules.

Synthesis (S Phase)

Replication of genetic material.

Cytokinesis

The cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.

Prophase I

Crossing over occurs

Metaphase I

Homologous chromosomes allign

Anaphase I

Homologous Chromosomes separate

Metaphase II

Sister chromatids align

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids separate

Codominance

Heterozygous is both dominant traits

Incomplete Dominance

Heterozygous is a blend of the two dominant traits

Autosomal INheritance

Allele located on an autosome.

Hex-Linked

Allele located on a sex chromosome.

Maternal Inheritance

Allele located on the DNA

Transcription

Synthesis of RNA from a DNA template.

Translation

Synthesis of a polypeptide from an mRNA template.

Helicase

Enzyme that unwinds the DNA strands

Topoisomerase

Relaxes supercoiling in front of the replication fork

Primase

Synthesizes the RNA primer.

DNA polymerase

Synthesizes new strands of DNA

Ligase

Joins the fragment on the lagging strand

Frameshift

Insertion/deletion of 1 or 2 necleotide base pairs

Promoter

Site where RNA polymerase binds

Operator

Site where repressor binds

Artificial Selection

Organisms with certain traits are bred until the population has that trait

Disruptive Selection

selection against intermediate phenotypes

Stabilizing Selection

Selection against two extreme phenotypes

Biogeography

Distribution of species and ecosystems in geological time

Prezygotic

Before zygote is created

Postzygotic

After zygote is created

Endotherm

Maintains body temperature through metabolism

Ectotherm

Maintains body temperature through behavior

Autotroph

Capture energy from physical or chemical sources.

Heterotroph

Capture energy present in carbon compounds produced by other ogranisms

Altruistic Behaviors

Reduces individual fitness but increases inclusive fitness

Logistic Growth

Population size united by carrying capacity.

Exponential Growth

Population size with unlimited growth.

Densisity Depedent Factor

Factors that intensify population increases

Density Independent Factor

Factors that Affect population regardless of the size

Keystone Species

Organism that has a disproportionate effect

Invasive Species

Organism not indigenous to the area with no predators