European Colonialism

What is mercantilism?

An economic theory that holds that governments should serve their countries' economic interests by encouraging strategies based on colonies and markets.

What were the primary goals of mercantilism?

To accumulate precious metals like gold and silver and provide closed markets for the manufactured goods of the mother country.

How did mercantilism influence European wars?

It fueled colonial rivalries and conflicts among European powers.

What economic bases influenced colonial development?

Settler-colonized agriculture, slave labor-based plantations, ranching, and mining.

How did the character of Native American cultures differ?

Meso-American and Andean civilizations were densely populated and urbanized, while North American cultures were often sparsely populated.

What were some negative impacts of colonial intrusion on Native American women?

They faced violence, disease, coerced labor, and sexual violence, often becoming dependent on European men.

What was the hacienda system?

A system where private owners of large estates directly employed native workers under conditions similar to slavery.

What role did Native Americans play in the colonial economy?

They provided most of the labor for agriculture and mining, despite their diminished numbers.

What was the social order in Spanish colonial society?

It replicated Spanish class and gender hierarchies, with male Spanish settlers at the top.

How did Spanish settlers view themselves in the colonies?

They saw themselves as residents of a Spanish Kingdom, deserving of self-government and distinct from Spain.

What was the status of women in Spanish colonial society?

Women were subordinate, could not hold public office, and were viewed as weak, with strict control over their sexuality.

What facilitated the growth of the mestizo population?

Intercourse between Spanish men and Native American women, along with the desire for secure lives in Spanish households.

How were mestizos perceived during the colonial era?

They were often looked down upon by Spaniards and considered illegitimate if not born of proper marriages.

What was the significance of mestizo identity in modern Mexico?

Mestizos became a major element of identity, blurring racial differences between Spanish and Native American people.

What were the consequences of the Spanish conquest for Native American societies?

Their empires were dismantled, religions attacked, and they were forcibly relocated into larger settlements.

What was the economic foundation of Spanish colonial society?

Commercial agriculture, large rural estates, and a network of regulated international commerce.

What was the encomienda system?

A legal regime that allowed Spanish settlers to extract labor from Native Americans, similar to slavery.

What were the main cities established by the Spanish in the Americas?

Major cities included several impressive universities, hundreds of cathedrals, and churches within a century of conquest.

What role did Spanish missionaries play in colonial society?

They sought to convert Native Americans to Christianity and often clashed with indigenous beliefs.

How did the Spanish view their colonial subjects?

They considered themselves dominant and sought to become a landed aristocracy, despite bureaucratic restrictions.

What were the labor conditions for Native Americans under colonial rule?

Labor was coerced and generally required by colonial authorities, often leading to exploitation.

What was the impact of the Great Dying on Indigenous populations?

It traumatized Indigenous people and led to their exploitation as the primary labor force for Spanish mines and estates.

What changes did Indigenous people experience under Spanish rule?

They learned Spanish, converted to Christianity, moved to cities for work, and faced legal discrimination as minors.

How were Indigenous women's legal rights affected by Spanish legal codes?

Indigenous women were increasingly excluded from courts and faced difficulties maintaining property rights.

What was the significance of the 1804 Maya legal petition?

It identified land ownership among a family, highlighting issues with Spanish translation and legal recognition.

What traditional foods were central to Indigenous diets in Mexico?

Maize, beans, and squash.

How did Indigenous beliefs blend with Christianity in colonial Latin America?

Christian saints often merged with Indigenous gods, while folk beliefs and communion with the dead persisted.

What was the Tupac Amaru revolt in Peru?

A revolt made in the name of the last independent Inca emperor, highlighting Indigenous resistance.

What demographic groups were present in colonial Latin America?

Mostly Spaniards, mestizos, and enslaved Africans, with some Native Americans who had education and wealth.

How did colonial Spanish America differ from British North America in terms of racial blending?

Colonial Spanish America was more racially blended and less rigid compared to British North America.

What was the impact of the Brazilian gold rush in the 1690s?

It increased mineral wealth in Brazil, which had previously lacked significant resources.

What was the primary use of sugar in Europe during colonial times?

Sugar was used as a medicine, spice, sweetener, preservative, and decorative element.

How did sugar production transform Brazil and the Caribbean?

It led to the establishment of large-scale plantations and reliance on enslaved labor.

What was the role of the Atlantic slave trade in sugar production?

It provided a workforce for sugar plantations, as the Indigenous population had been decimated.

What were the conditions like for enslaved people on sugar-producing estates?

They faced horrendous conditions, high mortality rates, and were often subjected to brutal punishments.

How did gender roles manifest among enslaved people in sugar colonies?

Enslaved women worked in fields and domestic settings, facing similar punishments as men but often excluded from skilled labor.

What was the demographic outcome of slavery in Brazil compared to North America?

Brazil's population became predominantly of African descent, while North America's enslaved population was largely born in the New World.

What was the status of free Black individuals in Brazil compared to the U.S.?

Free Black individuals in Brazil had more economic opportunities and were sometimes political leaders, unlike in the U.S.

How did racial identity differ in Brazil compared to North America?

In Brazil, racial identity was more fluid, with individuals of mixed descent sometimes able to 'pass' as white.

What was the significance of cross-racial unions in colonial Brazil?

They contributed to a multiracial population and influenced social structures and labor dynamics.

What were the major crops produced in colonial North America?

Tobacco, cotton, and indigo.

How did the presence of European women affect racial dynamics in North America?

Their presence led to less racial variety and a more rigid racial hierarchy compared to Latin America.

What was the difference in the reproduction rates of enslaved people in North America versus Latin America?

Enslaved people in North America reproduced at a rate that allowed for a self-sustaining population, unlike in Latin America.

How did perceptions of racial status change in Brazil?

Perceptions of racial status were influenced by education and economic status, allowing some to improve their social standing.