unit 1 - updated flashcards

Identical twins (monozygotic)

Twins that result from one fertilized egg that splits into two embryos.

Fraternal twins (dizygotic)

Twins that result from two separate fertilized eggs.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that includes everything except the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System

A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls automatic actions of internal organs and glands.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and uses energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves energy.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Action Potential

The phase when a neuron fires and sends an impulse down its length.

Refractory Period

The period when a neuron is recharging after sending a signal.

Resting Potential

The state when a neuron is charged but waiting to send the next signal.

Neurons

Nerve cells that are the building blocks of the nervous system, which receive, carry, and pass electrochemical information.

Spinal Cord

The part of the central nervous system that mediates body reflexes and communication between the brain and peripheral nervous system.

Brain

The organ that influences senses, movement, and information processing.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that transmit information from sensory organs to the brain or spinal cord; also known as afferent neurons.

Motor neurons

Neurons that carry signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands; also known as efferent neurons.

Interneurons

Neurons that relay information between other neurons, only found in the brain and spinal cord; for example, involved in reflex actions.

SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)

A type of antidepressant that allows more serotonin to pass messages between nearby neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Molecules that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron to another.

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

A change in the neuron's membrane potential that makes it more likely to fire, occurring when a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor and depolarizes the neuron.

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

A change in the neuron's membrane potential that makes it less likely to fire, occurring when a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor and hyperpolarizes the neuron.

Agonist

A substance that mimics or enhances the action of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that opposes or blocks the action of a neurotransmitter.

Morphine and opium-based drugs

Drugs that elevate pleasure and mood, and reduce pain, by increasing the activity of neurotransmitters like endorphins.

Curare

A paralyzing poison that acts as an antagonist, opposing the action of certain neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter that is critical to motor movement by delivering messages from neurons to muscles, and plays a role in learning and memory.

Deficit in Acetylcholine (ACh)

Causes Alzheimer's disease.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter crucial for motor movement, alertness, and attention.

Deficit of dopamine

Leads to Parkinson’s disease.

Excess of dopamine

Associated with schizophrenia, often treated with antipsychotic drugs that block dopamine receptors, limiting dopamine transmission across synapses.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters involved in pain control, stress reduction, and feelings of pleasure; often referred to as 'natural opiates'.

Deficit of endorphins

Can lead to potential addiction as endorphins are involved in pain control and pleasure.

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

The brain’s major inhibitory neurotransmitter that controls the excitability of neurons.

GABA deficit

Can cause symptoms such as seizures and insomnia.

Glutamate

The brain's major excitatory neurotransmitter, crucial for creating links between neurons, which form the basis of learning and long-term memory.

Excess of glutamate

Can lead to overstimulation of the brain and result in seizures.

Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Involved in the 'fight or flight' response; it controls alertness, arousal, heart rate, circulation, respiration, and mood elevation.

Deficit of norepinephrine

Often linked to depression.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that helps in mood regulation, sleep, and hunger.

Deficit of serotonin

Commonly associated with depression.

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Medications that prevent the reabsorption of serotonin in the synapses, thereby increasing serotonin levels.

Glial cells (neuroglia)

Non-neuronal cells that support and protect neurons in the brain and spinal cord, assisting in the production of myelin.

Activation of glial cells

Can be activated by peripheral nerve injury, physical/psychological injury, toxins, infections, and hypoxia/ischemia.

Endocrine System (hormonal system)

A slow chemical communication system made up of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.

Hypothalamus

The brain region that controls the pituitary gland.

Pituitary gland

A gland that releases various hormones, some of which affect other glands in the endocrine system.

Prolactin

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates breast milk production after birth.

FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone)

A hormone released by the pituitary gland that promotes the growth and development of ovarian follicles during the menstrual cycle.

LH (Luteinizing Hormone)

A hormone that stimulates the release of an egg during the menstrual cycle.

Thyroid gland

A gland that affects metabolism, energy levels, body temperature, memory, heart rate, and immune system function.

Parathyroids

Glands that help regulate the level of calcium in the blood.

Adrenal Glands

Glands whose inner part, the medulla, triggers the fight-or-flight response.

Adrenaline

A hormone that elevates heart rate and initiates glucose release during stress.

Pancreas

An organ that regulates the level of sugar in the blood.

Insulin

A hormone that stores excess glucose for energy and regulates blood sugar levels.

Ovary

An organ that releases female sex hormones.

Progesterone

A hormone released after ovulation that prepares the body for potential pregnancy.

Oestrogen

A hormone affecting the urinary tract and cardiovascular system.

Testis

An organ that releases male sex hormones.

Growth hormone

A hormone that regulates energy, metabolism, and aids in repair.

Cortisol/DHEA

Hormones that regulate the body’s response to stress.

Testosterone

A hormone present in both men and women that regulates energy, metabolism, mood, feeling of well-being, maintains muscle, regulates red blood cell production, menstruation, tissue and bone mass, sex drive, and fertility.

Estrogen

A hormone present in women that controls hot flashes, maintains bone density, enhances memory, and increases serotonin and dopamine levels.

Progesterone

A hormone present in women that helps with sleep, reduces anxiety, calms the brain, and protects the uterus.

Pineal Gland

A gland that produces melatonin, which supports good sleep, helps the body relax, and lowers body temperature.

Active Vitamin D (calcitriol)

A steroid hormone produced when the kidneys convert vitamin D, which regulates calcium and phosphorus levels in the body and supports bone health.

SHBG (Sex Hormone Binding Globulin)

A protein that binds to estrogen and testosterone to transport these hormones in the blood and controls how much testosterone body tissues can use.

Psychoactive Drug

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.

Physical Dependence

A physiological need for a drug, characterized by the development of tolerance and the need for more of the drug to achieve the same effect, leading to bad withdrawal symptoms.

Psychological Dependence

A psychological need for a drug, often to relieve negative emotions.

Substance Abuse

A pattern of drug use that negatively impacts home life, work, or school.

Tolerance

A phenomenon where, after regular use, the effect of a drug becomes less potent.

Withdrawal

Discomfort and distress experienced after the discontinuation of a drug.

Depressants

Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions, such as alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, and opiates.

Stimulants

Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up bodily functions, such as caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine.

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and cause a loss of contact with reality, such as LSD.

Alcohol

A depressant that slows brain activity controlling judgment and inhibition, leading to physical and psychological dependence, with severe withdrawal symptoms.

Opiates

Opium-based drugs such as morphine and heroin that depress neural activity and temporarily reduce pain and anxiety, with high risks of overdose and severe withdrawal symptoms.

Ecstasy (MDMA)

A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that poses short and long-term health risks due to potential damage to neuroconnections between the cortex and lower brain centers.

THC

The major active ingredient in marijuana (weed) that causes mild hallucinations and psychological dependence.

Leisoning

Destroying a part of the brain.

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

A condition caused by repeated traumatic brain injuries, such as multiple concussions in a row, which can lead to dementia.

Medulla

It controls breathing and heart rate.

pons

It regulates sleep and wakefulness.

Cerebellum

It coordinates movement and postural reflex.

Reticular Formation

It oversees arousal and attentional processes.

Thalamus

It serves as the primary relay station for the senses.

Limbic System

It controls emotions and memory.

Hippocampus

It is involved in memory, often remembered as 'hippo on campus'.

hypothalamus

Fight, flight, feeding, and fucking.

Amygdala

It is associated with emotions such as fear and anger.

Cerebral Cortex

The upper, wrinkled area of the brain that includes the lobes.

Frontal Lobes

They are involved in decision making.

Temporal Lobes

They are important for hearing, balance, and memory.

Occipital Lobes

It is responsible for visual processing.

Parietal Lobes

They receive sensory information.

Corpus Callusum

A structure of nerve cells that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Aphasia

Aphasia is a partial or complete inability to communicate or understand language due to brain damage.

Broca

responsible for speech production; if it is __, no talka.

Wernicke

plays a role in understanding speech.