SOC 100: Exam 2

Sex

the biological differences that distinguish males from females

Gender

-cultural or social distinctions and structural positions that are expected or regarded as appropriate for members of each sex

-socially constructed; often hierarchical

Sexuality

-refers to desire, sexual preference, sexual identity, and sexual behavior

-sexual practices vary across time, place, and culture (suggesting that sexuality is a social construct)

Gender roles

-behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

-many societies/cultures differentiate between men's and women's roles

ex. housewives vs. men being the money makers

Symbolic interactionism and gender

-social relations and interactions are gendered

-gender is not a fixed thing we take with us into our interactions (gender is something people "do" or accomplish through social interactions)

-society assigns meaning to gender

Gender role socialization

-gender roles are learned through gender role socialization

-family: boys and girls may be treated differently

-children observe parents enacting gender roles

-schools: teachers interact more with boys than girls; different expectations for behavior and achievement

Functionalism and gender

-gender differences and gendered structures exist to fulfill necessary social functions

ex. children

Specialized labor

-different roles and tasks for men and women

Talcott Parsons

-nuclear family and fixed gender roles perform complementary functions

-gendered division of labor tied to biology

Critiques of Functionalism and Gender

1. Why have those roles changed so much over time?

2. Socialization vs. biology

3. Other patterns are also functional

Conflict Theory and Gender

-the problem is the gendered division of labor

-devalues work done in the home

-economic dependence of women: lack resources, lack power

Feminism

the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes

Feminist Theory and Gender

-gender structures social relations, and there are power differentials by gender

-work done in the home is devalued

-solution: resources, choice, and respect

Patriarchy ("Rule of Fathers")

A form of social organization in which males hold more power and there is often a subordination of femininity and masculinity

Gender Stratification

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women

Intersectional theorists

-not just about gender; intersection of gender with race, class, ability, sexual orientation etc.

-analyzes how various social categories like race, class, gender, and sexuality interact to create unique experiences of discrimination and privilege

Frances Beal, "Double Jeopardy"

-Beal meant that being a member of one minority group may have certain disadvantages, but being a member of multiple minority groups amplifies those disadvantages even more

Where does gender stratification exist in the U.S.?

-political power

-employment/income

-family life

Gender Pay Gap

-on average, amount full-time workers in the U.S., women make about 20% less than men

-a gap exists regardless of age, education, or industry

Gender and its consequences for earnings are...

1. individual (internalize by socialization)

2. interactional (through norms, expectations)

3. institutional (hiring, raises, promotions, etc.)

Gender-typing

designation of occupations as either male or female, with female jobs receiving lower pay and status than male jobs

Discrimination: Overt

-visible, intentional, and direct actions that deny individuals opportunities or treat them unfairly based on characteristics like race, gender, or religion

-illegal but some evidence still persists

Discrimination: Glass ceiling

promotion barrier preventing women from rising to high levels in their career

Discrimination: Glass escalator

men in traditionally female jobs rise more rapidly to higher levels than women

Race paradox

Race as we know it has no deterministic, biological basis: all the same, race is so powerful that it can have life-or-death consequences.

Race

largely a socially construction rather than a fixed biological or natural reality

- Not biologically identified

- Imposed/ascribed, hierarchical, exclusive, and unequal

- ** Race is not "real", but has very real implications in our social world, which will be the focus of the lecture

What are the 3 main ideas about race?

-Race changes over time

-Race varies by place

-Race does not map onto to biological differences

Ethnicity

-the shared cultural practices and attitudes that set people apart:

• Voluntary

• self-defined

• Fluid and multiple

• nonhierarchical

• planar

• Religion can be one part of ethnicity, but not always

Minority Group

-Any group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment

-Subordinated; discriminated against

-Not a statistical/numerical term

Stereotypes

-Oversimplified ideas about an entire group of people that emphasize difference from other (usually dominant) groups

-Can lead to prejudice & discrimination

Prejudice

-value based attitudes and opinions about another group

-often reinforced by stereotypes

Discrimination

-unequal treatment of people deemed inferior

-behaviors / actions

Structural racism/institutional racism

-system of power and dis/advantage based on race, in which bias is built into the operation of society's institutions.

-produces unequal outcomes, even if actual policies / opportunities are race-neutral

Privilege

dominant group's experience is considered normative and this is reinforced by everyday experiences

Segregation

-is the legal or social practice of separating people on the basis of their race or ethnicity

-past institutional discrimination still affects residential segregation today

-often maintains position of dominant group

-official U.S. policy until ~1960s

-de facto residential & educational segregation still exists

Race vs. class

-Williams Julius Wilson: class important in explaining the persistence of racial inequality

-economic gap between affluent and poor Black Americans has grown over time.

-critique: does not give enough attention to ongoing institutional and individual discrimination.

Culture and "Model Minorities"

-Argument that culture and values explain why some racial or ethnic groups are less disadvantaged than others

Critique: Class background may be more important than culture and values

-Resources

-Push vs. pull factors in immigration

-Variation among Asian groups

Colorblind Racism (Bonilla-Silva)

"Don't see race"

-ignores how race influences life chances and outcomes

-reinforces institutional racism

-if everyone is equal but there are different outcomes, then must be result of individual

-ignoring structural issues and legacy of institutional discrimination

-Subtle (rather than overt) racism

Medicalization

the process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical come to be framed as such

ex. alcoholism

The Sick Role

-concept describing the social rights and obligations of a sick individual, developed by Talcott Parsons

-the sick person has the right to not perform normal social roles and not be held accountable for their condition but they are obligated to 1) try to get well and 2) to seek competent help and comply with a doctor's orders

The Affordable Care Act

law passed in 2010 to

-expand access to Medicaid eligibility

-allowing young adults to stay on their parents' insurance through age 26

-eliminate "risk adjustment" based on preexisting medical conditions

Social Health Gradient

people with lower socioeconomic status have worse health and shorter lives than those with higher socioeconomic status (graded relationship)

Why does the social health gradient exist?

1. selection theory

2. drift explanation

3. social determinants theory

Selection Theory

the connection between low income and poorer health is not casual

-other factors like genetics may affect both socioeconomic status and health

-tries to explain health at the individual level

Drift explanation or health selection

argues that poor health causes low income

ex. you keep getting strep throat and cannot hold down a job

Social Determinants of Health

who you are, where you live, how much you earn, and what you do for a living all play a major role in determining your health

-probably more impactful in predicting health outcomes than the health care system

-social forces affect our bodies, our morbidity (illness in a general sense), and our general risk of mortality (death)

The 3 General Thoughts of Social Determinants Theory

1. Psychological interpretation: feelings of inadequacy, low worth, and stigma cause people stress and wear down their bodies

2. Materialistic interpretation: differences in access to a healthy life, including all monetary, psychological, and environmental risk factors; is a result of socioeconomic factors

3. Fundamental causes interpretation

The 3 domains where racism is a fundamental cause of health

1. Institutional/Structural racism (residential segregation)

2. Cultural racism (unconscious bias in physician treatment)

3. Individual level discrimination (increases stress, which can lead to obesity, heart disease, and unhealthy behavior)

Stratification

refers to the hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, or status and economic resources

Social Stratification

-specifically describes the hierarchical ranking of individuals and groups within a society based on factors like wealth, power, and status (in other terms, their social characteristics)

-systematic inequality between groups of people

Equality of Opportunity

everyone has the same opportunities and is judged by the same standards

Equality of Condition

-an equal starting point from which to pursue goals

-acknowledges that opportunities are unfair so society should adjust to level the playing field

ex. affirmative action, food stamps

Equality of Outcome

should end up with the same "rewards" regardless of starting point, opportunities, or contributions

The three systems of stratification

estate, caste, class

Class system

-largely economically based

-based on both ascribed and achieved statuses

-share similar life chances

-often similar attitudes and behaviors

-social mobility possible

Status Hierarchy System

a system of stratification based on social prestige

ex. occupation, lifestyle, or membership in a certain organization

Socioeconomic Status

-an individual's position in a stratified social order

-refers to any measure that attempts to classify groups, individuals, families, or households in terms of occupation, income, or wealth.

Social Mobility

the movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society

Horizontal Social Mobility

transitioning from one social status to another situated more or less on the same rung of the ladder

Vertical Social Mobility

the rise or fall of an individual or group from one social stratum to another

What is the relationship between inequality and social mobility?

as levels of inequality increases, the chance for social mobility decreases

Absolute Poverty

life threatening lack of resources; can't meet minimal requirements to purchase food; uncommon in U.S.

Relative Poverty

the deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more; lacks decent standard of housing and healthy living conditions

Census definition: Family

two or more people living in the same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption

Census Families Over Time

-The Census has excluded some "family members": Non-residential parent or grandparent, unmarried cohabiting couples

*The point: Definition of family is a social construction that varies across time and place but has both symbolic and legal importance.

Sociological definition of family

a socially recognized group that forms an emotional connection and serves as an economic unit of society

Nuclear Family

-a family consisting of an adult or adult couple and their dependent children

-may be embedded in a larger extended family

Extended Family

a familial network consisting of more than two generations of relatives

Social Institution

organized social structures that direct the essential tasks of living to meet basic social needs

Family:

• Education

• Politics

• Economy

• Medicine / Health Care

• Others (Religion, etc.)

The meaning of family: pre-industrialized

Primary function of marriage (and children) was economic / practical

The meaning of family: post-industrialized

Primary function of marriage (and children) is self-fulfillment / romantic ideal

Endogamy

marriage to someone within one's social group

• (e.g., race, ethnicity, class, education, religion, region, nationality)

Exogamy

marriage to someone from a different social group

The effect of poverty on children's life chances

-Material deprivations that occur due to low SES status:

▪ Poor nutrition, lack of adequate medical care, and unsafe environments.

-Parenting stress hypothesis:

▪ Views low income, unstable employment, lack of cultural resources, and feelings of inferiority from social class comparisons exacerbate household stress levels which in term leads to detrimental parenting practices

Gender Roles and Expectations

-men are expected to be "masculine," or assertive, self-reliant, ambitious, decisive, and competitive

- women are expected to be "feminine," or warm, sensitive, compassionate, and kind

-evidence shows that gender roles have more to do with social status than biology

Masculinity

-concepts of masculinity can be harmful to men too (male suicide rate 4x that of men's, men being mocked for showing emotion, men never receiving physical affection from family members)

Devah Pager's research

black men with no criminal record are no more likely to be hired than white man just released from prison

-unconscious, pervasive stereotypes

-often not aware of treating people differently by race

Healthcare system in the U.S.

-the U.S. has the most expensive healthcare system

-the U.S. is one of only a few developed nations without universal health coverage

-in most other high-income nations, health care is provided at little to no charge

-purchased by the government or paid with taxes

-in the U.S., health care relies on a private market to provide

-medical bills are the biggest cause of bankruptcy in the U.S., causing about 2/3 of bankruptcy

-72% of of people who experience medical bankruptcy have insurance

Why is illness a social construct?

-what it means to be sick (or healthy) has changed throughout history and also differs from one place to another

Upper class

wealthiest; approximately 40% of nation’s wealth and 1% of the population

Middle class

white collar, non-manual jobs that pay significantly above the poverty line; 27% of nation’s wealth and 4% of the population

Working class

blue collar (manual) and pink collar (service) labor that pay above the poverty line; 12% of nation’s wealth and 5% of the population

Working poor

low pay jobs usually without benefits; minimum wage jobs; many
in/out of poverty; 11% of nation’s wealth and 10% of the population