Greek history exam 1

Basic Mediterranean Geography, Topography

The physical landscape of the Mediterranean basin, including rugged mountains, numerous islands, peninsulas, and a central sea that shaped Greek city-states' isolation, trade, and naval power. It encouraged colonization and a seafaring culture. Approx: Prehistoric (c. 3000 BCE onward).

Phaistos Disk

A fired clay disk inscribed with unique pictographic symbols in a spiral pattern, discovered at the Minoan palace of Phaistos; its script remains undeciphered and is a key mystery of Minoan writing. Approx: c. 1700 BCE (Minoan period).

Linear A

An undeciphered syllabic script used by the Minoans for administrative records on clay tablets; it predates and differs from Linear B. Approx: c. 1800–1450 BCE (Minoan).

Numismatics

The study of ancient coins, which in Greece began with the first minted coins in Lydia and spread to Greek city-states, featuring gods, heroes, and symbols that reflect politics and economy. Approx: c. 600 BCE onward (Archaic period).

Pan-Hellenism

The idea of a shared Greek identity transcending city-states, fostered through common language, religion (e.g., Olympic Games), and myths, especially against external threats like Persia. Approx: c. 800 BCE onward (roots in Dark Ages myths).

Synoecism

The political unification of independent villages into a single city-state (polis), famously done by Theseus in Athens, creating a centralized government and identity. Approx: c. 1200–800 BCE (legendary, Archaic implementation).

Barbaroi

Greek term for non-Greeks, meaning "barbarians" from the onomatopoeic "bar-bar" sound of foreign speech; used to define Greek superiority in culture and language. Approx: c. 500 BCE onward (Classical period).

Oikos

The basic household unit in Greek society, including family, slaves, and property; the economic and social foundation of the polis, managed by the male head (oikodespotēs). Approx: c. 800 BCE onward (Archaic/Classical).

Tholos Graves

Beehive-shaped, corbelled tombs built by Mycenaean elites, symbolizing wealth and power; examples include the Treasury of Atreus, with elaborate entrances and dromoi. Approx: c. 1600–1200 BCE (Mycenaean).

Theseus v. Minotaur

Myth where Athenian hero Theseus slays the Minotaur (half-man, half-bull) in the Cretan labyrinth, ending tribute of youths; symbolizes Athens' rise over Minoan Crete. Approx: Legendary c. 1400 BCE (Mycenaean era).

Indo-European

A language family originating from steppe nomads whose migrations brought Greek (Hellenic branch) to the Aegean around 2000 BCE, influencing myths, vocabulary, and genetics. Approx: c. 2000 BCE (migrations).

Judgement of Paris

Myth where Trojan prince Paris awards a golden apple to Aphrodite as fairest goddess, sparking the Trojan War after Hera and Athena's jealousy; involves Eris and the gods. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE (Trojan War era).

Heinrich Schliemann

19th-century German archaeologist who excavated Troy and Mycenae, inspired by Homer; his dramatic finds (like the "Mask of Agamemnon") proved the historical basis of myths. Approx: 1870s CE (excavations).

Europa

Phoenician princess abducted by Zeus as a bull, carried to Crete where she bore Minos; eponym for the continent, symbolizing cultural exchange between East and West. Approx: Mythic c. 2000 BCE (Bronze Age).

Sir Arthur J. Evans

British archaeologist who excavated Knossos in 1900, reconstructing the Minoan palace and naming the civilization after mythical King Minos; pioneered Aegean prehistory. Approx: Early 1900s CE (excavations).

Linear B

Syllabic script adapted by Mycenaeans from Linear A to write early Greek; deciphered by Ventris in 1952, revealing palace economies on clay tablets. Approx: c. 1450–1200 BCE (Mycenaean).

“Mask of Agamemnon”

Gold funerary mask from a Mycenaean shaft grave at Mycenae, found by Schliemann; depicts a bearded warrior, though not actually Agamemnon's—iconic of Bronze Age elite burial. Approx: c. 1600 BCE (Mycenaean).

Michael Ventris

British architect and linguist who deciphered Linear B in 1952, proving it was early Greek; his work unlocked Mycenaean history from administrative tablets. Approx: 1952 CE (decipherment).

Dark Ages

Post-Mycenaean collapse period of population decline, loss of writing, and isolation; marked by oral traditions like Homeric epics, leading to the Archaic revival. Approx: c. 1100–800 BCE.

Labyrs

Double-headed axe, sacred symbol in Minoan religion associated with priestesses, bull-leaping, and possibly earthquakes (as Rhea's weapon); found in Knossos frescoes. Approx: c. 1700 BCE (Minoan).

Bronze Age Developments

Era of metalworking (copper-tin alloy), urbanization, and trade networks in the Aegean; saw rise of Minoan and Mycenaean palatial societies before collapse. Approx: c. 3000–1100 BCE.

Palace at Knossos

Central Minoan administrative complex on Crete with multi-story wings, frescoes, and labyrinthine layout; center of thalassocracy, destroyed c. 1400 BCE. Approx: c. 2000–1400 BCE (Minoan).

Iron Age

Technological shift to iron tools/weapons, overlapping with Dark Ages; enabled Geometric art, burials like Lefkandi, and proto-polis formation in Greece. Approx: c. 1100–800 BCE.

Minoan & Mycenaean Art

Vibrant Minoan frescoes of nature/bull-leaping vs. Mycenaean warrior motifs in metalwork/pottery; reflects peaceful thalassocracy vs. militaristic kingdoms. Approx: c. 2000–1200 BCE (Bronze Age).

Acropolis

Fortified hilltop citadel in Greek cities, like Athens', housing temples and treasuries; sacred and defensive core of the polis. Approx: c. 1200 BCE onward (Mycenaean origins).

Megaron

Rectangular Mycenaean hall with central hearth, porch, and throne; precursor to Greek temple architecture, symbolizing palatial authority. Approx: c. 1600–1200 BCE (Mycenaean).

Lefkandi

Early Iron Age site on Euboea with elite burials (e.g., Heroon), showing continuity from Mycenaean wealth and trade, challenging "Dark Ages" poverty narrative. Approx: c. 1000–900 BCE.

Patroclus

Achilles' close companion and "beloved" in the Iliad; his death by Hector prompts Achilles' return to battle, exploring themes of friendship and mortality. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE (Trojan War).

Agora

Open public square in Greek cities for assembly, markets, and politics; democratic heart of Athens, surrounded by stoas and temples. Approx: c. 600 BCE onward (Archaic).

Heroon Grave

Monumental tomb at Lefkandi for a chieftain and woman (possibly his wife), with horse sacrifice; indicates heroic cult and elite status in early Iron Age. Approx: c. 950 BCE.

Dorian Invasion

Traditional explanation for Mycenaean collapse: southward migration of Dorian Greeks from north, bringing iron weapons and dialect; now seen as gradual. Approx: c. 1200–1100 BCE.

Minos & Pasiphae

Mythical Cretan king Minos and wife Pasiphae (cursed to love a bull, birthing Minotaur); Minos ruled a thalassocracy, judging from underworld. Approx: Legendary c. 2000 BCE (Minoan).

Agamemnon-Achilles Quarrel (Iliad)

In Homer's Iliad, leader Agamemnon takes Achilles' prize Briseis, causing Achilles to withdraw; sparks plague and Greek losses, central to epic's wrath theme. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE.

Oath of Tyndareus

Helen's suitors swore to defend her marriage choice by Odysseus' advice; invoked by Greeks to justify Trojan War after Paris' abduction. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE.

Trojan Horse

Deceptive wooden horse in Trojan War myth: Greeks hide inside, gifted to Troy; at night, they emerge, opening gates for sack of city. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE.

The Minoan Organization and Culture

Hierarchical palatial society on Crete with goddess worship, bull-leaping, fresco art, and trade empire; no fortifications suggest peaceful thalassocracy. Approx: c. 2700–1450 BCE.

Thera

Volcanic island (Santorini) whose massive eruption buried Minoan Akrotiri; likely weakened Crete's palaces, contributing to Minoan decline. Approx: c. 1600 BCE.

Thalassocracy

"Sea power" describing Minoan Crete's maritime empire, dominating Aegean trade without large armies; contrasted with Mycenaean land power. Approx: c. 2000–1450 BCE.

Proto-Geometric & Geometric pottery

Early Iron Age styles: simple Proto-Geometric (circles, lines) evolves to Geometric (meanders, figures) depicting myths, funerals; marks artistic revival. Approx: c. 1050–700 BCE.

Mycenaean Civilization

Warrior kingdom on mainland Greece with shaft graves, Linear B, and citadels like Mycenae; inspired Homeric epics, collapsed c. 1200 BCE. Approx: c. 1600–1100 BCE.

Chryseis

Daughter of Apollo's priest, captured and given to Agamemnon; her return demand starts Iliad's quarrel when he takes Briseis instead. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE.

Colonization Movement

8th–6th c. BCE expansion of Greek poleis to Sicily, Italy, Black Sea for land, trade; spread culture, led by oracles and overpopulation. Approx: c. 800–600 BCE.

Epigraphy

Study of ancient inscriptions on stone, pottery; reveals daily life, laws, decrees in Greece from Geometric dipinti to Classical decrees. Approx: c. 800 BCE onward.

Hesiod

Archaic poet of Works and Days (farmer's almanac) and Theogony (gods' genealogy); with Homer, foundational for Greek mythology and ethics. Approx: c. 700 BCE.

Briseis

Captive woman awarded to Achilles, taken by Agamemnon causing his wrath; her lament in Iliad humanizes war's captives. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE.

Aryans

Indo-European branch (Indo-Iranians) migrating to India/Iran c. 1500 BCE; in Greek context, relates to broader IE invasions influencing Hellenic culture. Approx: c. 2000–1500 BCE.

Hector

Trojan prince and warrior in Iliad, defender of Troy; killed by Achilles after slaying Patroclus; embodies heroic duty and tragic fate. Approx: Legendary c. 1200 BCE.