syntax

for exam

What is syntax?

Syntax is the organisation of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences—essential for expressing complex ideas.

Why is syntax important in communication?

Without syntax, messages are limited. It enables sentence structure, clarity, and meaning in both speech and writing.

What does a speaker need to produce a complex sentence?

At least a main clause; often includes subordinate clauses in adult speech and writing.

What is a well-formed sentence?

A sentence that follows syntactic rules (e.g. “The cat chased the mouse”).

What is an ill-formed sentence?

One that violates syntactic rules (e.g. *“The cat has chasing mouse”).

What is grammaticality judgement based on?

Structure—not meaning (e.g. “Colourless green ideas sleep furiously” is grammatical but nonsensical).

What is the subject of a sentence?

The noun phrase that performs the verb’s action.

What is a direct object?

The thing directly acted upon (ask: “what?”).

What is an indirect object?

The recipient of the action (ask: “to/for whom?”).

What are grammatical relations?

Subject, direct object, and indirect object.

What is structural ambiguity?

When the same sentence has two meanings due to syntax.
(e.g. “old men and women”)

What are constituents?

Natural groupings of words in a sentence.

What are three constituency tests?

• Stand-alone test (Q: What did you find? A: The puppy)

• Replacement by pronoun (I found him)

• Move-as-a-unit test (The puppy was found by the child)

Name 5 phrasal categories.

• Noun Phrase (NP)

• Verb Phrase (VP)

• Adjective Phrase (AdjP)

• Adverb Phrase (AdvP)

• Prepositional Phrase (PP)

What is a complementiser phrase (CP)?

A clause introduced by a complementiser (e.g. that, if, whether)

What are open-class lexical categories?

Noun, verb, adjective, adverb

How to test for a noun?

Can take plural, articles (a/the), and adjectives.

How to test for a verb?

Can show tense (walk/walked), combine with adverbs (walk quickly), and modals (can walk).

How to test for an adjective?

Can use comparatives (bigger), superlatives (biggest), be used after “is” (e.g. is short).

How to test for an adverb?

Can be modified by “very” (very quickly), not used before a noun.

What are determiners (Det)?

Words that modify nouns: articles (a, the), possessives (my), quantifiers (many), demonstratives (this)

What is an auxiliary verb (Aux)?

Helps the main verb show tense/aspect/modality (e.g. is, was, will, must)

What is a complementiser (C)?

Introduces an embedded clause (e.g. that, if, whether)

What is a conjunction (Conj)?

Links same-category items (e.g. and, but, or)

What are the 2 parts of a sentence?

Subject + Predicate

What is a clause?

A group of words with a subject and predicate. Can be independent or subordinate.

What’s the difference between coordination and subordination?

Coordination joins equal ideas (I came and I saw). Subordination joins unequal ideas (I stayed because it rained).

What is an adjunct?

A removable part of a sentence that adds info like time, manner, place (e.g. “quickly” in “She ran quickly”).

What is the basic sentence structure rule?

S → NP + (Aux) + VP

What are VP and NP rules?

• VP → V + (NP) + (PP)

• NP → (Det) + (AdjP) + N + (PP)

What is recursion?

Repeating phrase/clause structures to form complex expressions.
e.g. The girl with the feather on the ribbon on the brim of her hat

What are transformations in syntax?

Sentence structure changes like:

• Declarative → Yes/No question

• Active → Passive

• Adding “there” (e.g. “There is a fly in the soup”)

What is agreement in syntax?

Ensures words match in person, number, gender, and case.
e.g. “She knows” (correct), not “She know”.

Why is syntax important for SPs?

To assess and treat language disorders like aphasia, DLD, and SLI, which often affect grammar, word order, and clause formation.