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Resources
Dartmouth → introduction → mini lectures
Darkness vifible
Themes
Power and Corruption
Hierarchy
Good vs Evil
Death/ redemption
Morality
Secrecy
Marriage/ relationships
Malcontent
Gender/ Freedom
Religion
Death
Corruption, hierarchies, good, evil
"He and his brother are like plum-trees that grow crooked over standing-pools”
Description of Ferdinand and the Cardinal, which can be related to Satan (description of water).
Corruption, hierarchies, good, evil
Corruption, hierarchies, malcontent
“I am your creature”
Bosola gives in to Ferdinand's corruption by dehumanising himself
Malcontent
Corruption, hierarchies, malcontent
Now improved/ In meditated fraud and malice, bent/ On man's destruction
Satan's solely driven by destruction
Endures characteristics of a Jacobean malcontent
Corruption, death, disease
“[the court] is like a common fountain, whence should flow pure silver drops in general[…] death and disease through the whole land spread”
Antonio → the court is like a fountain - should give clean, good water for everyone's benefit, but if it's poisoned at the source it will make everybody ill.
Disease
Corruption, malcontent
Ferdinand → “you envy those that stand above your reach, yet strive not to come near them.”
insinuating that Bosola’s ambition is fuelled by jealousy, however he is unable to fulfil his ambitions to rise above his rank.
petulant jealousy due to rank, Antonio calls Bosula → “Court-gall”
Compound title - embittered, having acerbic and cynical view on society + court → Would have reflected the views of lots of contemporary underemployed + embittered young men during the Jacobean era of which class and status was heavily enforced
Corruption, malcontent
“the more I see/ Pleasures about me, so much more I feel/ Torment within me”
he is unable to find pleasure in the beauty of Eden despite acknowledging that they are solace
Misanthropic admission of jealousy directly contrasts Adam and Satan whereby the former is able to enjoy such “pleasures” unlike the latter
Milton thereby insinuates that Satan is a tragic hero in which the devil is fraught by his hamartia: petulant jealousy. This tragic convention dictates Satan’s actions towards Adam
He disparages Adam under the guise that he should be the pinnacle of God’s creation and not man
This hamartia physically degenerates Satan as his physical demeanour becomes closer and closer to hell; from an angel to a snake. Also in terms of purity, status and pride
AO5 = C.S Lewis → Satan goes from 'progressive degradation' from God's second in command to “a mere peeping Tom leering and writhing in prurience”
Corruption/ malcontent
One could also align Bosola with the tragic convention of a malcontent as he, like Satan, is in constant want of something he cannot reach.
We see him making sarcastic remarks, being critical of court and Church, feeling bitter after his imprisonment in the galleys and he seems perceptive showing his intelligence despite lack of position in the society of Malfi.
“rails at those things which he wants, would be as lecherous, covetous, or proud, bloody or envious”
Antonio's admission critiques Bosola’s jealousy, insinuating that Bosola is motivated by his desires.
Corruption/ malcontent
Satan → what will not Ambition and Revenge descend to?
P.L B9 Rhetorical question. Highlights that Satan is willing to do anything to achieve his ambition. Shows he believes it involves debasing and lowering oneself.
Common sentiments of a early-drama malcontent, offering himself as an agent of retribution to the reader
AO5 Luke McKernan → “Such discontented social commentators seem to be plausible guises for the playwrights themselves” Alluding to Milton’s discontent for the catholics
Corruption/ hierarchy/ delusion
Bosola attempts to climbs a hierarchy towards a bourgeoisie top
Corrolates to James I’s favourites who utilised sexuality and submission in order to achieve finaicial and political reward
Bosola aligns himself with the delusion of the Cardinal and Ferdinand → similar to the Ear of Buckingham who manipulated himself to benefit from the corrupt court of James I (1603-1625) → his financial desires precipitated a potential homoerotic affair with the King, utilising deciet in order to push awat from the ‘proletariat standing”
Used deception in order to achieve personal greatness
“The Cort of Amalif → “heedless and heartless pursuit of privilege”
Corruption/ hierarchy/ delusion
Bosola attempts to climbs a hierarchy towards a religious reformation
Corrolates to James I’s favourites who utilised sexuality and submission in order to achieve finaicial and political reward
Satan moulded himself into a serpentine trick→ similar to the Ear of Buckingham who manipulated himself to benefit from the corrupt court of James I (1603-1625) → his financial desires precipitated a potential homoerotic affair with the King, utilising deciet in order to push awat from the ‘proletariat standing”
Used deception in order to achieve personal greatness
Corruption/ hierarchy/ deception
Whilst Bosola deceives others to climb the social hierarchy, Ferdinand deceives those around him in order to sustain his position
lycanthropic state → deteriorating sanity → his imagined wolf claws clawing away at the Duchess’ stoicism
Projects the focus on the “lusty” Duchess → Ferdinand placates others’ concern for his deteriorating sanity
AO5 = incestuous desires emerge → 2014 production = Ferdinand grabbed and kissed the Duchess when she confessed she was married → visceral sexual aggression suggests Ferdinand’s faltering deception → tries to hide his inner saboteurs → ‘id drive’ desires overrule his deceit
Corruption/ hierarchy/ deception
“guile and hate”
Satan’s deception never falters
Serpentine manipulation → sustains his position of “guile and hate”
never faults in hiding and deceiving those around him
Marriage/ gender roles/ deception
Duchess’ marriage to “base low” Antonio → deception against brothers
They dictae that she must remain a “young widow” → Duchess lies to them and gets married anyways
Marries beneath her without the authoirty of her brothers and blessing of the Church → people still believe she is a widow
Arabella Stuart, 17th century gender roles
Marriage/ gender roles/ deception
Eve was deceptive in beguiling Adam with the forbidden fruit
she asked to “divide the labours” she desired independence → wanted to deceive her husband and act on her own accord
contrasts to 17th century gender roles
AO5 → Jessica Martin = In the relationship between adam and eve, adam is going to behave more like God and eve is going to behave more like humanity
Marriage, gender roles
“take pen and ink”
Duchess instigates “wooing” (takes control) → reversal of 17th gender roles
“O my unworthiness”
Antonio knows he is unworthy → highlights disparities between social ranks
“And may our sweet affections [...] be in motion”
continues to go ahead anyways
Contemporaries would have been aware of Arabella Stuat’s predicament and made links Married someone of lower status clandestinely and led to demise
AO5 = Rankin (1968) → “Antonio is depicted as wilful, wanton and irresponsible.” to marry the Duchess
Marriage, gender roles
Adam is resolved “to die” if not to live with Eve, unable to even forgo her “sweet converse”.
“to short absence I could yeild” → juxtaposes this
Adam is unwilling to forgo solitude without Eve symptomatic of Milton’s marriage views
The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce → “the apt and cheerful conversation of man with woman, to comfort and refresh him against the evils of solitary life” → Human nature requires marriage as a means of salvation from loneliness.
AO5 = Sara Silverstein + Thomas Luxton → “Adam, unlike God, is incomplete without companionship, and unless it is overcome, will occasion mankind's downfall,” → the fall of Eden was a consequence of Adam’s need of Eve
Marriage, hierarchies
“do[es] tremble”
“but for your brothers?,”
Antonio when he kneels for the Duchess → fear for the future
serves as a meas of caution (dramatic irony to Ferdinand’s veiled threats) → a second wedding, “ may more properly be said / To be executed than celebrated.”
Ferdinand does not want the Duchess to marry again → gender stereotypes 17th century
incestuous desires
Marriage, gender roles
Adam “against his better knowledge; not deceived” eats the Fruit, → knows it is sinful and he will fall
Adam is rendered senseless by either their love or desire for companionship, → resulting in their downfall.
Freedom/ 17th gender roles
“Why should only I/Of all the other princes of the world/Be cased up like a holy relic?' I have youth”
Duchess → Transgressing gender norms through challenging the perception of women and marriage
Simile highlights her lack of freedom - the brothers try to limit her freedom and trap her; highlighted by verb. Use of language with masculine connotations suggests she views herself with more freedom than in reality in the patriarchal society
It also stresses the difference between nature and artifice, between the naturalness of a woman’s flesh, blood, youth and beauty and the way patriarchal society seeks to transform women into decorative, precious objects that can be locked away and safely controlled.
17th century gender norms dictated that women were viewed as property; the patriarchal ideal that a man could dictate to a woman whom she may or may not marry was commonplace during the Renaissance
Freedom/ 17th gender roles
“In female sex, the more to draw his love/ And render me more equal”. → eve just ate the fruit → reveals her insecurities regarding Adam → ambition
Milton transposes 17th century views on gender into the narrative of the Epic Poem
Eve oxymoronically reveals a desire to become an equal to Adam as she has otherwise felt subjected under him.
This mirrors the gender inequality established in the 17th century; women were viewed to be second-class citizens and fastidious demands were put on them in terms of behaviour and virtue, which they were required to uphold at all times or face judgement.
Milton presents Eve as a character who subverts these gender inequalities; she is presented as a woman with the desire to be her own self, rather than be viewed as an addition to Adam.
Contrasts to the mild and somewhat innocent Eve presented in the King James’ Bible whose views on her husband are simply not mentioned.
Freedom/ 17th gender roles
“The birds that live i'th'field/On the wild benefit of nature, live/Happier than we; for they may choose their mates”
Duchess to Antonio: bird imagery; often used when referring to freedom.
Duchess criticising social marriages; not free to make your own choice; highlights how limiting the social hierarchy is Giovanna d'Aragona was the real-life Duchess of Amalfi and murdered because she married someone below her social status
AO5 = The Duchess of Malfi is entrapped as men catch birds"“ → Koh
Freedom/ 17th gender roles
"may render me more equal"
“for inferior who is free?" (IX, 826).
She wants to leave Adam → subverting her gender role → thinks if she leaves this place she will become freer → wants to become independent
Freedom comes precisely from recognizing one's place in the grand scheme and obeying the dictates of that position. By disobeying God, Eve has gained neither equality nor freedom; she has instead lost Paradise and brought sin and death into the world.
Death/ Freedom/ 17th gender roles
it is too late to have “clipped the bird’s wings that has already flown”
Duchess’ acceptance of death → she has already flown towards heaven where she will be happier
AO5 = RSC 2018 production → the Duchess harmonises in a haunting lament with the madmen
She has succumbed to her destiny, takes it within her control and dies a heroic death
Women/ 17th century gender roles/ intense emotions
“I can do both like a prince” in regards to living and dying
"The Duchess gains her power through developing her body politics and her body natural throughout the play
(The term body politics refers to the practices and policies through which powers of society regulate the human body, as well as the struggle over the degree of individual and social control of the body. → form of body politics emphasised a woman’s power and authority over her own body.)
alludes to Elizabeth 1st → retains her own opinions despite abusive brothers → stands up for own beliefs
Combines the true persona of her body natural and the status of her body politics so that she is in control of her body’s choices
AO5 = Billington → “the radiant spirit of the Duchess cannot be killed” → true even in death
“The achievement of Webster’s play is that it makes public the feminine secrets of the domestic […] that exonerates its heroine and casts a shadow on the public word”
“the public world excludes both women and personal happiness is the sign of its absolute corruption”
Women/ 17th century gender roles/ deception
Duchess is remembered through her stoicism and heroic actions
She is incapable of deception, not because of her sex but because of her goodness and purity
Webster utilises the corrupt bothers in order to herald the Duchess
He contrasts the source for the play William Painter;s ‘Palace of Pleasure’ → Duchess is a “lusty widow of noble blood” and deceptive due to her “overt sexuality”
Webster polarises this as she remains “the Duchess of Malfi still” even when faced with death
She is stoical and courageous in the face of malcontent Bosola and the Machiavellian brothers → sustains her sexual autonomy position against patriarchal authority
“Human fragility [is] exemplified by women as a tragic hero” → Dympna Callaghan
“female desire is shown in the play to have the capacity to undermine […] the fabric of state” → Dympna Callaghan
Women/ 17th century gender roles/ deception
Eve’s “face value” acception if her actions which preempted the fall → gives no excuses to God for biting the “fatal fruit” polarises deception
Milton’s views prohibits a feminist perspective → "his “Turkish contempt for women” dictated women as below deceit
from his perspective, women were not able to deceive each other” → “one tongue was enough for a woman” → abides to oppression during 17th century
AO5 = C.S Lewis → “Eve commits murder” when she gives Adam the fruit
Milton’s oppressive views of femininity which bars Eve from blame → Adam is blamed for not controlling his wife → eve is incapable of deceit
For Milton Eve was just another rib of Adam and she is unable to deceive those around her
AO5 Stella P Revard → The sexes are interdependent
Death/ intense emotions
“there is nothing between heaven and earth” → (Antonio death scene) that will give him reason to stay alive after the Duchess has died
Greenwich production → Antonio and the Duchess meet in heaven, signifying a happy ending
Thought of a better life keeps Duchess strong → Antonio despcription of the Duchess → “three medals in one figure”
Alludes to the Holy trinity → she is already at one with death → ensures that she dies with power “She is the Duchess of Malfi still” in death
AO5 = RSC 2018 production → Duchess’ spirit remains on stage even after death → when Cardinal died at her feet, touches his head which leads to last breath shows motivation to death led to the best outcome where she maintained her body politic and her body natural
Madness/ delusion
“shadow”
Ferdinand’s vivid and incestuous imagination which drives him to paranoia → taking the form of a madman who is afraid of his own shadow
Intense emotion brings out the “shadow” → could be interpreted as his conscience which he chooses never to step into as it is unrecognisable to him
AO5 = Dromgoole 2014 production → Ferdinand dry humps the bed to reenact the Duchess with ‘some strong thigh ed barman’ → further angering him into a frenzy
“so near the bottom” when Ferdinand begins to see reason→ ironic line from Bosola → too late to be saved
Deceit/ Delusion
As Satan enters the serpent and offers Eve the fruit he falls into a false sense of security that precipitates “death and sin” into the world → delusion is a product of wanting power and God’s authority
Contrast against Milton’s Orthodox society → Satan’s attempt to overthrow Godly authority (through delusion) is Milton’s Puritanical disgust for Catholicism
During 1600s, Puritan and Catholic debate intensified with Catholic leaning Kings (Charles 1st Personal rule)
Satan’s inversion of the Godly Trinity is Milton’s critique of the “deceitful nature of Catholicism”
Deceit/ Espionage/ Machiavellian
use “apricots” to establish whether or not the Duchess is pregnant → forbidden fruit allusion
Bosola yearns for social power
Cardinal and Ferdinand uphold a higher standing → Bosola is a social climber → deceit aligns himself with the brothers
Marxist perspective → ‘proletariat’ position bars him from achieving this
becomes Machiavellian and deceitful → deceiving the Duchess into submission to obtain a bourgeois standing → humans are inherently deceitful
Deceit/ Espionage/ Religion
“mediated fraud and malice” “destruction”
Satan’s serpentine disguise to trick Eve → Machiavellian tendencies
Manipulates his shape in order to trick “innocent” Eve
conniving and manipulative ways which precipitate the Fall → blindly leads Eve into “lust and “incarnal” burning flames
He is bent on “mediated fraud and malice” “destruction” → bolstering his reliance on delusion
As Satan does this he falls into a false sense of security that precipitates “death and sin” into the world → delusion is a product of wanting power and God’s authority
Contrast against Milton’s Orthodox society → Satan’s attempt to overthrow Godly authority (through delusion) is Milton’s Puritanical disgust for Catholicism
During 1600s, Puritan and Catholic debate intensified with Catholic leaning Kings (Charles 1st Personal rule”
Satan’s inversion of the Godly Trinity is Milton’s critique of the “deceitful nature of Catholicism”
Satan encapsulates the deceitful nature of “hell and supposedly Catholicism → deciet is the driving force behind Satan;s character
Deceit
“With thy permission then, and thus forwarned” → Eve
women are inherently curious and have the ability to decieve
shows capacity to deceive as a woman from the outset
contrasts to the mild eve in the King Charles
critic → “jealousy then motivates the fallen Eve’s desire to make Adam fall too”
Morality
Duchess has an appetite for liberation from patriarchal authority
Morality
Areopagicita (Milton 1644) → “god given freedom to choose” that makes us human
eve’s decision to eat fruit and the consequential post-lapsarian world = result of human condition
Milton felt the need to “justify the ways of God to man” perhaps
god’s punishments seem contradictory despite his gift of liberty to man
Milton’s authorial role echoes his political role → “Secretary for Foreign Languages 1649
acting as a voice of the English revolution → Milton’s role of narrator adopts similar importance → interrupts “rural past” to mark Eden’s destruction
Initial union of Adam and Eve is presented as idyllic relationship between genders
book IX introduces first disagreement between the two
exposes the vulnerabilities that make Adam and eve susceptible to the fall → eve in her desire to define her autonomous identity and Adam in his sympathy
Eve “sever’d from [Adam]” as a “lifeless rib”
Feminist Sandra M Gilbert focus upon Eve’s subjection to Adam
Marking the hierarchy of the Garden of Eden and Eve’s inferiority → Adam is created in the image God while Eve is created in the image of man
As a “daughter of man” Eve is defined by her relationship with men → deprived of autonomous identity eve is the patriarchal ideal of womanhood and trained to be obedient to male power
Eve’s first mistake which leads to her eventual temptation and destruction is attempting to disrupt the “natural” and idyllic order of Paradise via the suggestion “let us divide our labours” and working independently without Adam
Perhaps Eve’s “freedom to choose” is repressed by Eden’s patriarchy as the Duchess’ choice of husband is ostensibly dominated by her brothers, therefore silently persuades Eve’s eating of this “fruit divine”
Milton’s use of “greedily she engorged without restraint” → could imply that Eve’s appetite for freedom is heightened as the “great Forbidden” controls her actions
Religion
free will → not predestination → we choose rather than chosen for use
gendered religion → patriarchy from religious texts → bible → women are subservient → conventions of marriage
Rebelling against tyrannical rule → uses lowercase G (“Forbid us to taste, but his forbidding”)→ Cromwell and rebellion → historical and political
Revard → Adam by permitting Eve to go forth alone creates the climate for her fall
repetition of virtue
“freely taste” → manipulation, religious free will
"“into her heart her interest too easy won” → God made Eve → God’s responsibility
“impregn’d” = his persuasive words have impregnated her
seduction → sexual element
“Forbids us good, forbids us to be wise” → forbids becomes binds → togetherness → complex reasoning at work → subversion of perception of women → rationality
“Fair fruit” → repeats Satan
“Satan is figured as a sleazy seducer” → Mcavoy
“The serpent he beguiled and I did eat” → Book 10
female autonomy → shows agency (she has it) → short and to the point
Milton gives eve agency
Morality/ religion
His theology is arguably calvinistic, as conveyed when Ferdinand surprises the Duchess, exclaiming, “Virtue, where art thou hid?/ What hideous thing/Is it that doth eclipse thee?”.
Ferdinand insinuates that virtue, an embodiment of purity and innocence, is obscured by sin to the extent whereby its existence is questioned,
mirroring Calvin’s view that virtue is “a mere epiphenomenon or illusion of fallen human nature whose primary reality is sin” (John Gillies).
Thus, it is reasonable to suggest that Calvinist sentiments permeate throughout Webster’s play, as the original sin is a constant reminder; it is unavoidable.
In this way, Webster conflates theology and morality.
Morality/ religion
Milton explores morality in theological terms through the impact of original sin →present the original sin as macrocosmic.
Theological approach in his retelling of Genesis, specifically in Book IX
Eve committed the original sin as she “pluck’d” the forbidden fruit whereby subsequently “nature from her seat/ Sighing through all her/ Works gave signs of woe”.
AO5 → The wounding of nature is reminiscent of Williams Ame’s view of original sin, saying that nature was “weakened” and “put out of order” as a consequence of it.
signifies nature’s corruption as it has been morally defiled and sullied; mirroring Eve and her own morality when she was seduced by Satan earlier in the Epic poem.
Additionally, the personification of Earth diverges from Genesis; it is not present, and rather, focuses on the human perspective of Adam and Eve as they knew “they were naked”.
Milton thereby shifts the focus away from the human consciousness of Adam and Eve’s nakedness, towards the impact of original sin.
AO5 DuRocher contemplated that this personification indicated for Milton that, “theology and natural history are inevitably intertwined”.
In this way morality, in terms of sin and its impact, is presented as powerful and theological.
Morality/ religion
Similarly, Milton also presents the original sin as inescapable.
This is conveyed when, “Earth trembl’d from her entrails” after Adam consumed the forbidden fruit.
Indeed, Milton’s christian contemporaries would have noted the similarities between Milton’s narration and the Apostle Paul
in his letter to the Romans the Apostle wrote how, “the whole creation groaneth and travaileth within pain together”.
suggests that Milton explores the ‘Fall’ through a theological perspective, as he establishes the original sin in macrocosmic terms, insinuating it to be constant and inescapable.
Additionally, the “trembling” of Earth would have also fortified to 17th century readers that every person is naturally flawed as they have be born into sin
reinforced by the the Protestant Church of England’s 9th Article of Religion in which, “the fault and corruption of the Nature of every man, that naturally, is ingendered of the offspring of Adam [...] deserves God's wrath and damnation”.
Milton adheres to the doctrine, presenting it as powerful and inescapable. Therefore, the moral conclusion insinuated mirrors that of the bible; that man is born into sin.
Morality
Webster further explores the inescapability of the original sin in his Tragic play.
Wymer argued that “the impression one gets from Webster’s plays [is that] many of his characters are caught in traps which are not of their own choosing,” → adhering to the calvinist insistence that most people were predestined to damnation with no chance of redeeming themselves.
Crucially, Bosola embodies this sentiment when he mistakenly kills Antonio, “the man I would have sav’d ‘bove mine own life!”.
highlights to the audience that Bosola’s intentions to do good ultimately fails, leaving him at the end of the play as a “wretched thing of blood” and invariably flawed. I
despite his attempts to save Antonio, he ends up killing him, personifying the incapability of the original sin.
Morality/ religion
Equally, Antonio can also be considered as a moral character, as he is described by the unequivocally immoral character, the Cardinal, as having a nature “ too honest for such business”.
However, like Adam, he falls due to his “sweet affections” and, depending on the religious beliefs of the audience, behaved in a manner which could be considered as immoral.
a Catholic would have considered the “duchess's marriage [as] clearly clandestine” (S. Marcus) as they were not married in front of two witnesses,
a provision under the English Canon Law. Marcus noted that, “Under the canons of 1604 in England, she and Antonio could have been punished for their neglect of the proper legal formulae: they could have been hauled before the ecclesiastical courts [...] for violating the canons of the church.”
Regarding this, Rankin noted that Antonio is depicted as “wilful, wanton and irresponsible.” to marry the Duchess. [see wooing bit]
Morality
In terms of Adam's morality, Milton adheres to the original scripture; Adam's moral values are reflected in his attitude, which is revealed through his speech “
go with speed, / And what thy stores contain, bring forth and pour / Abundance, fit to honour and receive” to Eve in Book 4.
While he is superior to Eve, there is still no evidence of haughtiness in his discussions with Eve and in this way Milton conveys throughout the poem that Adam is a moral character.
Despite this, for Eve, he consumes the fruit, leading to C.S Lewis commenting that he “fell by uxoriousness,” which is exemplified when Adam is resolved “to die” if not to live with Eve, unable to even forgo her “sweet converse”.→ (see marriage bit)
In this way, Adam, an originally moral character, acts immorally, resulting in his downfall.
Morality/ religion
Additionally, both writers convey these characters to be aware of these dangers and yet still proceed, descending further into immorality. In Paradise Lost, Adam “against his better knowledge; not deceived” eats the Fruit, knowing it is sinful and that he will fall.
Morality
Similarly, in The Duchess of Malfi, Antonio “do[es] tremble” when he kneels for the Duchess, connoting fear for the future during a time when he should be at his happiest. In this way, both Adam and Antonio are aware of their immoral acts, however they still continue. The audience or readers are therefore conflicted; it is evident that the characters somewhat deserve their ‘falls’ because they were aware of the consequences, however, we feel sympathetic towards them as we know they are morally good.
Control
Patriarchy
In ‘The Duchess of Malfi’, women were seen to be “cursed creatures” who were “unequal in nature” with their “heart so far upon her left side”. A
s far back as the Zohar, a foundational text of Jewish mysticism, Judeo-Christian religions attributed the left with femininity and inferiority, as Eve appeared on and developed from Adam’s left side.
From the beginning of the play, Ferdinand and the Cardinal attempt to prevent the Duchess from marrying again, telling her that “those must luxurious will wed twice”, so that she would remain in obedient to them instead of another man.
Ferdinand, upon realizing that the Duchess disobeyed her brothers and re-married, calls her a “strumpet” and is shown to actively criticize her, with the derogatory language stemming from his inability to successfully have the Duchess under control.
The play, as Jankowski outlines, illustrates the “conflicting claims of the Duchess’ body natural and body politic”, and this is illustrated in Ferdinand’s irrational, obsessive desire to control the Duchess.
His anger, despite being primarily motivated by lust and incestuous obsession, perhaps reflects the dissent of the parliamentarians who, in light of the ascension of female rulers such as Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I, were dissatisfied and doubtful as women, who were considered to be “weak, frail, impatient, feeble and foolish”. Knox (1558) were placed above them as the monarch.
Physical control is exerted over the Duchess is during her imprisonment, whereby her words “Pity! With such a pity men preserve alive pheasants and quails, when they are not fat enough to be eaten”, expresses her frustration towards her inferior stance as a female that leads to the control that her brothers are able to exert over her.
Control
Patriarchy
Milton presents instances where men are criticizes for not being able to exert control over women.
In ‘Paradise Lost’, Adam is described to have been “in delight both of her (Eve’s) beauty and submissive charms” and “smiled with superior love”.
Adam, in accordance to the Great Chain of Being, was placed above Eve in the hierarchy, and therefore, his inability to control her and guide her as the more rational and superior gender incites criticism from God.
He, when Adam was “fondly overcome with female charm”, tells Adam: “Thou didst resign thy manhood, and the place wherein God set thee above her made of thee”.
Despite Milton’s emphasis of having “intimate and speaking help”, and the benefits of a “ready and reviving associate in marriage’ in ‘A Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce’, he was not advocating for equality, instead suggested that this “reviving associate” was illustrated under the basis of women still inherently being inferior to men.
Female inferiority is established in God’s words after the Fall: “to thy husband’s will, thine shall submit, he over thee shall rule”, and his emphasis on the gender hierarchy illustrates the complete control and authority men have over women, but for Adam, God’s words could also serve as a reminder for Adam to exert his proper control and authority over Eve to prevent further corruption and destruction taking place.
Control
Religion
Another way in which Webster and Milton depict control and authority in their works is by illustrating the control and authority that religious figureheads seem to hold within both works.
Webster sheds light on the power that the Cardinal holds, as a religious figurehead who somewhat parallels God in ‘The Duchess of Malfi’.
The Cardinal, throughout the play, contrasts with Ferdinand in showing his calm but manipulative character, that Antonio describes as “plum trees” that “lay crooked over standing pools which are rich, and o’erladen with fruit”, whereas “none but crows, pies and caterpillars feed on them”.
The Cardinal’s corrupt character is expressed in his manipulation of Julia, where he tells her: “thy curiosity Hath undone thee: I knew thou couldst not keep my counsel, I have bound thee to’t by death”, and killing her with a poisoned Bible.
Antonio comments that the “Prince’s court” is “like a common fountain” and “if’t chance some cursed example poison’t near the head, death and diseases through the whole land spread”.
This notion can be relayed onto Webster’s illustration of the Cardinal, who, as the ‘cursed example’, was created by Webster to embody the stereotype of cruel, hypocritical, corrupt Catholics as articulated in Martin Luther’s ‘Ninety-Five Theses’ in 1517.
There were great conflicts over Catholicism during Webster’s lifetime such as the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and King Charles’ fight against Catholic powers in Europe before 1630. Catholic priests would take in the tithing money and keep it to themselves.
Control
Religion
Whilst Webster illustrates the power and authority a corrupt religious figure has, Milton sheds light on the power of God, who, despite not being human, acts as the divine authority who is able to control and judge his creations. God’s role as the divine authority in ‘Paradise Lost’ is presented in an interesting way, especially in light of the Fall of humanity caused due to their free will.
The God of Christian theology is viewed as an omnipotent, omniscient being, and his power is exemplified through his illustration as a figure behind ‘clouds’ with a shrouding ‘light’, magnifying his divine authority that distances himself from humans.
God’s authority over Satan, the catalyst of the Fall, is illustrated as Satan and his followers turn into serpents who create a “dismal, universal hiss” after recognizing that “a greater power (God) now ruled him”.
God’s power over Satan through his metamorphosis is demonstrated. Whilst his punishment of Satan may be just, it can be questioned to what extent God is able to exert his authority over his creations, and whether this authority is justified at all.
Milton presents a complex, seemingly just but questionable image of the divine authority, and to a more secularized, contemporary audience, the illustration of the dissent towards God’s authority and control can be justified, especially in light of the debate between free will and determinism.
Milton’s portrayal of God, at times, reflects his views on the monarchy itself, as his belief in the freedom of speech, often conflicted with Charles I’s extremely constrictive, restraining rule where he limited Parliament’s access to the King and limited the Church in their spendings and services.
Instead of portraying God to be an infallible authority figure, Milton’s interesting illustration of God, perhaps reflecting his critical views on the Divine Right of Kings that James I emphasized: “Kings are not only God’s lieutenants upon earth, but even by God himself they are called Gods” (1609).
As Milton expressed his dissent towards the monarchy, ‘Eikonoklastes’ was written as a rebuttal of Charles’ Eikon Basilike, where Milton argues that if the King does not portray attributes of a ‘good’ king, then the people have the right to take him down from the throne.
Milton claimed in ‘Eikonoklastes’ that all monarchs had the potential to become tyrants, no matter how benevolent they may appear, contrasting with the sympathy that was aroused through Charles’ Eikon Basilike that illustrated the monarch to be a noble martyr.
‘The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates’ in 1649 (which was not published until after his death) urged the abolition of a tyrannical kingship and the execution of tyrants.
Milton echoed this argument consistently throughout his time, and in his ‘Defense of the English People Against Salmasius’ (1651), he carries forward the notion that the execution of a monarch is supported by authorities from Classical antiquity to the early modern era, and the tyrannical nature of Charles I’s sovereignty justified his death.
Whilst Milton wrote ‘Paradise Lost’ to ‘justify the ways of God to man’, it is evident that, in his portrayal of divine authority that conflicts with free will, his depiction of God can be considered as an alternative interpretation to the omniscient, all-perfect God of Christian theology.
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