Unit 2 - Interactions Among Branches of Government

Preps 7-13 (Pollock).

Advice and consent

Senate power to approve presidential appointments and treaties.

Bicameral

Two-chamber legislature (House and Senate) balancing population and state equality.

Caucuses

Informal groups of members with shared interests or identities (party, ideology, demographic).

Coalitions

Alliances of legislators to support common goals or pass legislation.

Enumerated powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution (e.g., declare war, tax, regulate commerce).

Implied powers

Powers inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out enumerated powers.

House of Representatives

Population-based chamber, initiates revenue bills, 435 members.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Grants Congress flexibility to make laws needed to execute enumerated powers.

Power of the purse

Congress controls federal spending and taxation.

Senate

Equal-state chamber, confirms appointments, ratifies treaties, 100 members.

Seventeenth Amendment (1913)

Direct election of Senators, shifting power to citizens.

War Powers Act (1973)

Limits presidential military action without Congressional approval.

Cloture rule

Procedure to end a filibuster in the Senate (requires 60 votes).

Committee of the Whole

House procedural device where the whole chamber acts as a committee to speed debate.

Conference committees

Joint House-Senate committees that reconcile bill differences.

Deficit

When government spending exceeds revenue.

Discharge petitions

Mechanism to force a bill out of committee for a floor vote.

Discretionary spending

Spending that Congress can adjust annually (non-mandatory).

Filibuster

Senate tactic to delay or block a vote through prolonged debate.

Germane

Requirement that amendments be relevant to the bill under discussion.

Hold

Senate procedure allowing a senator to block consideration of a bill.

Joint committees

Committees including members from both House and Senate.

Logrolling

Exchanging favors or votes among legislators to pass bills.

Mandatory spending

Spending required by law (Social Security, Medicare).

Omnibus bill

Large bill combining many measures into one package.

Pork-barrel spending

Legislation that funds localized projects to win support.

President of the Senate

Vice President of the U.S.; presides over the Senate, casts tie-breaking vote.

President pro tempore

Senior senator of majority party; presides in VP’s absence.

Rider

Amendment attached to a bill, often unrelated, to pass it through.

Rules Committee

House committee setting terms of debate for legislation.

Select committees

Temporary committees for specific investigations or issues.

Senate majority leader

Manages Senate floor, schedules bills, coordinates strategy.

Speaker of the House

Leader of the House; controls agenda and committee assignments.

Sponsor

Legislator who introduces a bill.

Unanimous consent

Senate procedure to expedite business with no objections.

Ways and Means Committee

House committee that handles tax legislation and revenue bills.

Whip

Party leader who counts votes, enforces discipline, ensures attendance.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Supreme Court case establishing federal courts can review redistricting; opens door to “one person-one vote.”

Delegate model

Legislators vote according to constituent preferences.

Gerrymandering

Drawing districts to favor one party or group.

Gridlock

Legislative stalemate due to partisan or procedural conflict.

“Lame duck” president

Outgoing president with reduced influence before leaving office.

“One person-one vote” principle

Each vote should carry equal weight in representation.

Politico model

Members combine trustee and delegate approaches depending on the issue.

Racial gerrymandering

District manipulation to favor or dilute racial groups.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Supreme Court case limiting racial gerrymandering.

Swing district

Competitive district that can vote either party; key to election strategy.

Trustee model

Legislators vote based on personal judgment, not solely on constituents’ wishes.

Bargaining and persuasion

President convincing Congress or the public to support policies

Commander in Chief

Head of the armed forces

Formal powers

Powers explicitly granted in the Constitution

Executive agreement

International deal made by the president without Senate approval

Executive order

Directive issued by the president that has the force of law

Executive privilege

The right of the president to keep certain communications private

Informal powers

Powers not found in the Constitution but used to influence policy

Line-item veto

Power to reject specific parts of a bill, struck down by the Supreme Court

Pocket veto

When a bill dies because the president does not sign it within ten days and Congress has adjourned

Policy agenda

The issues and policies the president promotes and prioritizes

Signing statements

Written comments attached to a bill when signing, often indicating how the president interprets or will enforce it

Veto

Formal rejection of a bill by the president

Bully pulpit

Using the presidency as a platform to influence public opinion

State of the Union Address

Annual speech to Congress and the nation outlining the president’s agenda

Ambassadors

Officials representing the U.S. in foreign nations, appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate

Cabinet

Group of top officials heading executive departments, advising the president on policy

Chief of staff

Senior aide who manages the White House staff and controls access to the president

Inherent powers

Powers not explicitly stated in the Constitution but claimed by presidents to fulfill their duties

Joint Chiefs of Staff

Senior military leaders from each branch who advise the president and National Security Council

Federalist No. 70 —

Hamilton’s essay arguing for a single energetic executive for accountability and effectiveness

Imperial presidency

A presidency that exceeds its constitutional authority, acting without sufficient checks

Andrew Jackson

Expanded presidential power through veto use and direct appeal to the people

Abraham Lincoln

Claimed broad war powers during the Civil War, including suspension of habeas corpus

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Expanded federal government and presidential authority during the Great Depression and WWII

Theodore Roosevelt

Advocated stewardship theory, using presidential power unless directly forbidden

Stewardship theory

Idea that presidents may act in national interest unless explicitly prohibited by law or Constitution

Twenty-second Amendment

Limits presidents to two elected terms in office

George Washington

Set precedents for the presidency, including stepping down after two terms

War Powers Act (1973)

Limits presidential use of military force without congressional approval after 60 days

After Nixon’s Veto of the War Powers Act, the War Powers Resolution (different name, same description) of 1973 was a response to the perceived overreach of presidential power in committing U.S. troops to conflicts, particularly the Vietnam War, without clear congressional authorization. Congress sought to reassert its constitutional role in matters of war, which had been eroded during the Korean and Vietnam conflicts, by requiring presidential notification and regular consultation with Congress on military deployments and limiting the time forces could be engaged without formal congressional approval.

Woodrow Wilson

Expanded the role of the president in foreign policy and as a communicator to the public

Bureaucracy

Complex system of agencies and officials carrying out laws and regulations

Civil Service Commission

Early system to oversee merit-based hiring for federal jobs

Civil Service Reform Act (1978)

Modernized civil service, created new systems for evaluating employees

Compliance monitoring

Bureaucratic role of ensuring businesses and organizations follow regulations

Iron triangle

Close relationship between agencies, Congress, and interest groups to influence policy

Issue networks

Looser, more fluid alliances of groups and individuals shaping policy

Merit system

Hiring and promotion based on qualifications rather than political connections

National Performance Review

1990s initiative to make bureaucracy more efficient and accountable

Office of Personnel Management

Agency managing civil service hiring and employee policies

Patronage

Granting government jobs or favors in return for political support

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)

Replaced spoils system with merit-based hiring

Spoils system

Practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters

Administrative Procedures Act (1946)

Requires agencies to give notice and opportunity for public comment before issuing new rules

Code of Federal Regulations

Collection of all rules issued by federal agencies

Department of Education

Cabinet department overseeing federal education policy and funding

Delegated discretionary authority

Power Congress gives agencies to decide how to implement laws

Department of Homeland Security

Cabinet department created after 9/11 to oversee domestic security

Department of Transportation

Cabinet department regulating transportation safety and infrastructure

Environmental Protection Agency

Independent agency enforcing environmental laws and standards

Federal Election Commission

Independent agency regulating campaign finance

Federal Register

Official journal publishing proposed and final agency rules

Independent regulatory agencies

Agencies outside executive departments with authority to regulate specific sectors