Chapter 7 Psychology 101

Thinking

The process of representing and manipulating information in our mind

Mental image

A mental picture or representation of an object or an event

Concept

A mental category for classification of an object, an event, or an idea, on the basis of their common features or properties

Logical

Clearly defined rules for determining membership. 

Natural concepts

Concepts that have “fuzzy” or poorly defined rules for membership. We usually learn natural concepts through experience, as opposed to learning them in school.

Problem solving

A cognitive process in which we employ mental strategies to find solutions.

insight

A sudden awareness of a solution to a problem

Trial and error

A “hit or miss” approach to finding solutions. Trying one thing after another until finding the correct solution.

Algorithm - Problem solving techniques

A step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem. If the rules are applied correctly, algorithms guarantee the correct solution to the problem or situation. 

“Working” Algorithm - Problem solving techniques

A general set of guidelines for solving a problems, may not provide the correct solution 

Heuristics - Problem solving techniques

A “tule-of-thumb” used to solve problems or make judgements. They don’t guarantee a solution, but can help us to come to solutions more quickly. 

Means-end heuristic - Problem solving techniques

We evaluate our situation, then compare “where we are” to “where we want to be”, then develop a plan to achieve the goal.

Backward-working heuristic - Problem solving techniques

Start with the solution and then work backwards to see if what evidence you have supports the solution. 

Mental set 

The tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situation.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to see the objects in ways other than for their intended use 

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to stick to an initial hypothesis or decision even in the face of strong contradictory evidence. We tend to place greater weight upon evidence which confirms our prior beliefs and expectations than on information that disputes it. 

Representativeness Heuristic

A “rule-of-thumb” for making a judgement that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population from which it is drawn.

An example of when we use this is when we form first impressions on people based on how they are dressed, or the conversation we had with them upon first encounter. 

Availability Heuristic

The tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind

Creativity

A form of thinking that leads to original, practical, and meaningful solutions to problems or that generates new ideas or artistic expressions.

Decision making

The process of deciding which of two or more courses of action to take.

Language 

A system of communication consisting of symbols-words or hand signs-arranged according to a set of rules, called grammar, to express meaning

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in a spoken language

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a language

Pragmatics 

Patterns of intonation and social roles associated with a language

Syntax

Specifies the rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences 

Semantics

Meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences

What is Intelligence?

The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one’s goals

How is intelligence measured?

IQ = MA divided by CA multiplied 100 (MA/CA x 100)

The theorist of Intelligence

Spearman, Thurstone, Gardner, Sternberg

Spearman 

Intelligence involves general cognitive ability, or “g'“ for general. He believed there was an underlying factor of intelligence. Used traditional intelligence tests that designed the measurement of “g” in the form of an IQ score. 

Thurstone

The seven primary mental abilities Thurstone 

Gardner

Multiple intelligences are needed to account for the range of mental abilities. The theory has a popular appeal but doesn’t account for the interrelationships among the difference intelligences.

Sternberg

The Triarchic theory proposes three aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical. This theory is important because it provides a much-needed focus on how people use their intelligence in everyday life.

The seven primary mental abilities Thurstone 

1. Verbal comprehension

2. Numerical ability

3. Memory

4. Inductive reasoning

5. Perceptual speed

6. Verbal fluency

7. Spatial relations

The Triarchic theory

Three aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical!

Cognitive Psychology

They school of thought in psychology that explores how we acquire knowledge about the world. It explores how we think, process information, use language and solve problems.

Binet and Simon

Utilized only the MA and CA (no IQ involved). Intelligence a measure of the comparison between the mental age and chronological age.

Lewis Terman

Revised Binet and Simon IQ test- now calling it the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 

Most widely used measurement for IQ