Anatomy

superior

towards the head

inferior

towards the feet

medial

towards the midline

lateral

away from the midline

proximal

close to another structure

distal

away from another structure

transverse plane

horizontal

frontal plane

vertical and splits the front and back

sagittal plane

vertical and splits left and right

oblique plane

any angled plane

anterior

also ventral

towards the belly

posterior

also dorsal

towards the back

bone functions

support - framework for the attachment of soft tissue; muscles - movement

protection of the soft tissue: cranium, vertebral column, rib cage, pelvis

haematopoisesis

storage - fat (medullary cavity, yellow bone marrow) and mineral (calcium and phosphorus)

bone classifications

long

short

flat

irregular

sesamoid

long bones

longer than wide

main components of limbs

sustain weight

provide levers for muscles, often curved

humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, femur, tibia, fibula, metatarsals, phalanges

diaphysis

shaft of the long bone

cylinder of compact bond around the inner medullary cavity, outer surface surrounded by a layer connective tissue - periosteum

nutrient foramen

medullary cavity

contains yellow bone marrow

lined with thin layer of connective tissue - endosteum

epiphysis

end of the bond, spongy tissue, red bone marrow; articular cartilage

metaphysis

between the diaphysis and epiphysis, in growing bone contains epiphyseal (growth) plate of hyaline cartilage (longitudinal growth), becomes epiphyseal line

short bones

cube-shaped spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone

transfer forces of movement

carpal (wrist) and tarsal (ankle) bones

flat bones

broad surfaces

offer protection and provide wide areas for muscle attachment

irregularly placed articular surfaces

• cranial bones

• ribs

• scapulae

between two surface layers of compact bone and spongy bone (dipploe)

irregular bones

varied shape and often very complex and with peculiar forms for the functions they perform

many surface features for muscle attachment or articulation

variable amount of spongy and compact bone

vertebrae, calcaneus and some skull bones

sesamoid bones

develop in tendons as a response to physical stress

no always completely ossified

patella, pisiform

axial

consists of the bones that provide the axis of the body and support and protect the organs of the head, neck and trunk

skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column, rib cage

appendicular

consists of the bonds of the free upper and lower limbs and the girdles that connect them to the axial skeleton

pectoral girdle, free upper limb, pelvic girdle, free lower limb

1

frontal bone

2

parietal bone

3

temporal bone

4

occipital bone

5

sphenoid bone

6

lacrimal bone

1

ethmoid bone

7

nasal bone

8

maxilla

9

zygomatic bone

10

inferior nasal concha

11

mandible

12

vomer

auditory ossicles

within the middle ear (petrous temporal)

transmit sound impulses

malleus

hammer

bone in the middle ear

incus

anvil

stapes

stirrup

hyoid bone

not attached directly to any other bone

in the neck inferior to mandible, suspended from the temporal bone by the muscles and ligaments

supports the tongue and larynx

vertebral column order and number

• cervical 7

• thoracic 12

• lumbar 5

• sacrum 5 merged to 1

• coccyx 4 merged to 1

vertebral column primary curve

concave

thoracic and sacral

vertebral column secondary curve

convex

cervical and lumbar

thoracic cage

bony and cartilaginous structures

12 pairs of ribs, costal cartilage, sternum, 12 thoracic vertevrae

pectoral girdle

clavicle

scapula

lateral forearm bone

radius

medial forearm bone

ulna

hand bones

8 carpal bones

5 metacarpals

14 phalanges

hip bone parts

illium

ischium

pubis

pelvis

hip bone (os coxae)

sacrum and coccyx

lateral leg bone

fibula

medial leg bone

tibia

foot bones

7 tarsals

5 metatarsals

14 phalanges

joint

point of contact between two bones, bone and cartilage, or bone and tooth

hold the bones together allowing/restricting movement and flexibility

more mobility means less stability and vice versa

joint function classifications

no movement (synarthrosis)

slight movement (amphiarthrosis)

free movement (diarthrosis)

flexion

decrease angle of the joint

extension

increase angle of the joint

abduction

move away from the midline

“abduct”

adduction

move towards the midline

“add”

neck joint

atlanto-axial joint does rotation

shoulder joint rotation

circumduction

also in the hip

temporomandiubular joint movements

open is depression

close is elevation

anterior is protraction

posterior is retraction

foot movements

lift up ball is inversion

lift up outside is eversion

point toes is plantar flexion

bring up is dorsiflexion

radioulnar joint movement

palm posterior is pronation

palm anterior is supination

joint structural classifications

fibrous

cartilaginous

synovial

fibrous joints

no synovial cavity

bones held together by dense irregular connective tissue

• sutures

• syndesmoses

cartilaginous joints

no synovial cavity

bones held together by cartilage

• synchondroses

• symphyses

synovial joint examples

synovial cavity present

bones connected by dense irregular connective tissue (articular capsule), accessory ligaments

• planar

• hinge

• pivot

• condyloid

• saddle

• ball and socket

suture joints

fibrous

made of thin layer of dense irregular tissue

between bones of the skull

bones have irregular interlocking edges

synostosis: bony joint (fusion of two bones)

syndesmoses

fibrous

greater distance between the articulating bones more dense irregular connective tissue compared to sutures (ligaments)

interosseous membranes (radius/ulna, tibia/fibula) and distal tibiofibular joint

gomphosis (dentoalveolar joint) - periodontal ligament

synchondroses

cartilaginous (primary)

bones connected by hyaline cartilage

epiphyseal plates

1st rib and sternum

symphyses

secondary cartilaginous

articular surfaces covered with hyaline cartilage and united by fibrocartilage

pubic symphysis, between the manubrium and body of the sternum, intervertebral joints between the vertebral bodies

synovial joints

contain space between articular surfaces (covered by hyaline cartilage)

contains synovial fluid

articular (joint) capsule:

• fibrous membrane (outer) - dense irregular connective tissue attached to the periosteum

• synovial membrane (inner) - areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers, secretes synovial fluid

synovial joint parts

ligaments: stabilize the joints, intrinsic and extrinsic

articular discs and menisci of fibrocartilage between articular surfaces present in some joints

labrum: ring of fibrocartilage which depends the socket

bursa, tendon sheath: friction reduction

planar joints

articular surfaces: flat or slightly curved

movement: gliding or sliding in the plane of articular surfaces

intertarsal, interjarpal, acromioclavicular

hinge joines

articular surfaces: one convex the other concave

movement: flexion and extension (uniaxial)

knee (modified), elbow, interphalangeal, ankle

condyloid (ellipsoidal) joints

articular surfaces: one convex, oval shaped the other concave oval shaped

movement: flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumdaction (biaxial)

carpal and metacarpophalangeal joints

saddle joints

articular surfaces: saddle (modified condyloid)

movements: flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, circumduction (biaxial)

carpometacarpal between trapezium and metacarpal of the thumb

pivot joints

articular surfaces: rounded/pointed and a ring (bone and ligament)

movement: rotation around the central axis (uniaxial)

medial atlantoaxial, proximal radioulnar joint

ball and socket joints

articular surfaces: spheroidal surface fitting into a cup-like depression (socket)

movement: flexion/extension, adduction/abduction, rotation, (triaxial)

shoulder, hip joints

tissue types

epithelial

connective

nervous

muscle

epithelium

locations

• external body surface

• respiratory system

• digestive system

• urinary system

• reproductive system

• circulatory system

• glands

function

• protection

• diffusion

• absorption

• secretion

good at these because tightly packed and polarised

epithelium classifications

shape and number of layers

shape: columnar, cuboidal, squamous

layers: simple, stratified, pseudo stratified

basal attachment

all epithelium lies on basal lamina followed by reticular lamina which makes up the basement membrane

apical side is outside world or inside body cavity

simple columnar epithelium

1 layer of tall, uniform cells

function: secretion and absorption

locations: lining of intestine, uterine tubes, bronchioles

specializations: goblet cells (cup like and produce/secrete mucus), microvilli and cilia

cilia vs microvilli

cilia: motile and help move contents like mucus, can maybe see individual cilia on microscope

microvilli: immotile and just to increase surface area for absorption, short and stubby so just looks like a solid sheath around

simple squamous epithelium

1 layer of wide, flat cells

function: diffusion and filtration

locations: alveoli and kidneys

specialized types: endothelium - lining blood vessels, mesothelium - lining the outside of organs

endothelium

simple squamous epithelium that lines blood vessels

mesothelium

simple squamous epithelium lining the outside of organs

simple cuboidal epithelium

1 layer of cube-shaped cells

function: secretion, filtration and absorption

locations: glands and ducts, salivary and mammary

specializations: microvilli

stratified squamous epithelium

multiple layers of cell - topmost are wide and flat

function: protection

locations: skin, oesophagus, and anal canal

specialization: keratinized

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

1 layer of cells of different heights

function: secretion and movement of luminal contents

locations: trachea, bronchi, nasal cavity

specializations: goblet cells and cilia

transitional epithelium

changing cell shape depending on distention of organ

function: stretch and protection

locations: bladder

specializations: apical hardening

connective tissue types

dense: regular, irregular, elastic

loose: areolar, adipose, reticular

dense irregular connective tissue

function: 3D stress resistance

locations: skin and around organs

ECM: collagen + few elastin

elastic connective tissue

dense

function: stretch

locations: heart, blood vessels, vocal cords

ECM: elastin + collagen

areolar connective tissue

loose

function: cushion and attachment, holds us together

locations: around organs and vessels

ECM: elastin + collagen + reticular + ground substance