Unit 0: Scientific Principles in Psychology

Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes and behavior

Confirmation bias

a tendency for people to focus on information that confirms existing beliefs

Hindsight bias

people believing they knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred even if they did not predict it beforehand

Overconfidence

when people have too much faith in their own judgements, thinking they know more than they actually do

Empirical evidence

information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement

The Scientific Method

systematic approach in psychology to study human behavior

Hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study

Falsifiable

a falsifiable hypothesis in psychology that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation

Peer Review

a process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals

Replication

the process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed

Reliability

a measure or test is considered reliable if it produces consistent results

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

The American Psychological Association (APA)

a leading professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology/application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare

Research Design

the overall plan or strategy that outlines how a research study will be conducted to address specific research questions or objectives

(experimental, correlational, descriptive)

Methodology

the systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct research within a specific research design

(data collection methods like surveys, interviews, observations, data analysis techniques like statistical tests, qualitative coding)

Quantitative Data

numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments

Qualitative Data

descriptive data drawn from non statistical sources, including participant observation, personal stories, interviews, and life histories

Likert Scales

a measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions

(strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)

Structured Interviews

research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order

Survey Technique

a research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures

Wording Effect

subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents' interpretations/responses

Social Desirability bias

the tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers

Naturalistic Observation

research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation

Case Study

research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon

Correlational Research

scientific method used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables, allows psychologists to identify patterns and make predictions, but does not establish causation between variables

Third Variable Problem

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationsjip between the two variables of interest

Scatterplot

a visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strngth and direction of the relationship between two variables

- represented by "r" and ranges from -1 to +1

the closer the correlation coefficient is to +1 or -1, the stronger the releationship between the variables

- stronger = predictable

- weaker = less predictable

- 0 = no relationship between variables

Positive Correlation

coefficient of +1 indicates a perfect positive relationship, one variable tends to increase as the other increases or vice versa, variables move in same direction

Negative Correlation

coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship, meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases, variables move in opposite directions

Experimental Method

a research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables

Independent Variable

the variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variable

the variable that is measured

Confounding Variables

variable that wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results

Operational Definitions

specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study

Experimental Group

group exposed to the independent variable

Control Group

group not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline for comparison with experimental group

Random Assignment

method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly

Placebo Effect

phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving beneficial treatment, rather than due to any active ingredient

Experimenter Bias

the researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results

Single-Blind Study

research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but researchers conducting study are aware

Double-Blind Study

research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group

Placebo Condition

administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested

Sample

subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study

Representative Sample

subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population

Random Sample

ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of research bias + increase generalizability

Sample Bias

occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate or misleading results

Generalizability

extent to which research findings obtained can be applied to a larger population

Statistics

large amount of data can be collected in research studies

Descriptive statistics

refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset

Inferential statistics

using data from a sampe to make inferences or predictions about a larger population

Measures of Central Tendency

statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data

- mean, median, mode

Mean

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the average value of a set of data

Median

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the middle value of a data set when values are arranged in ascending or descending order

Mode

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the most frequently occurring value in a data set

Range

represents the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Normal Curve/Bell Curve

majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution w/ progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean

Regression to the Mean

extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again, happens because extreme scores are often due to temporary factors and not lasting characteristics

Positive Skew

majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unsually high values

Negative Skew

bulk of the data clusters of the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values

Standard Deviation

how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

Percentile Rank

measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value

Bimodal Distribution

data distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph

Statistical Significance

likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

- p < 0.05 statistically significant difference

- p > 0.05 no statistically significant difference

Effect Sizes

large effect size indicates substantial difference or relationship, independent variable has considerable impact on dependent variables

small effect size indicates minimal difference or relationship, indicating that the independent variable has a limited effect on the dependent variable

Meta Analysis

analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions