Anatomy and Physiology 2 Final Exam Study Guide - ETSU - Dr. Patrick Brown

What are all of the formed elements of the blood?

A) RBC - Transports O2 and CO2

B) WBC's (5 types) -
1. Neutrophils (Granuloycte)- performs phagocytosis on microorganisms.
2. Eosinophil (Granulocyte)-releases chemicals that reduce inflammation, attacks certain worms
3. Basophil (Granulocyte)-release histamine (inflammation) and heparin (prevents clot formation).
4. Lymphocyte (Agranulocyte) - produces antibodies/other chemicals that destroy microorganisms, contribute to allergic reactions, tumor control, etc.
5. Monocyte (Agranulocyte) - Phagocytic cell in blood, leaves blood and becomes macrophage.

C) Platelet- forms platelet plug, releases chemicals needed for blood clotting

What antigens/antibodies does type A blood have?

A antigens,
anti-B antibodies

What antigens/antibodies does type B blood have?

B antigens,
Anti-A antibodies

What antigens/antibodies does type AB blood have?

A and B antigens,
no antibodies

What antigens/antibodies does type O blood have?

No antigens,
both A and B antibodies

When are anti-ABO antibodies produced?

shortly after birth

When are anti-RH antibodies produced?

ONLY after sensitization

What is the clotting mechanism of the blood?

1. Platelets release serotonin (a vasoconstrictor) and prothrombin activator.
2. Prothrombin (inactive) is then converted to thrombin (active)
3. Fibrinogen (soluble) is then converted to fibrin (insoluble) by thrombin.

What is the difference between a thrombus, embolus, and embolism?

A thrombus is an abnormal clot,
an embolus is a thrombus that leaves the site of formation and enters circulation,
and an embolism is an embolus that gets lodged somewhere

What is the pathway of blood through the heart?

Vena cava,
right atria
tricuspid,
right ventricle,
Pulmonary SL valve,
pul. trunk
pul. artery
capillaries of lungs
pul. veins
left atria
bicuspid (mitral)
left ventricle
aorta

What is the pathway of a cardiac impulse through the cardiac conduction system?

S-A node,
junctional fibers,
A-V node,
A-V bundle,
left & right bundle branches
Purkinje fibers

What is happening during a PQRST wave (ECG) at any point either electrically or mechanically?

-P WAVE - Atria depolarizes, systole
-Q wave- atrial systole and ventricular diastole
-QRS wave - ventricles depolarize
-T wave - ventricles repolarize, diastole
-QT interval - how long it takes ventricles to depolarize
-Quiescent period - in between T and P waves

Layers of arteries and veins

1. Tunica externa,
2. tunica media,
3. tunica intima.

Layers of arteriole

1. smooth muscle cells.
2. endothelium

Layers of venule

1. tunica externa
2. endothelium

Layers of capillaries

Venule side: 1. pores 2. basal cells basal lamina
Arteriole side: 1. endothelial cells 2. basal lamina

Know the direction of bulk flow at either end of the capillary bed and what forces are driving force that movement:

Arteriole end: hydrostatic pressure causes a net outward flow of 13 mm HG
Venule end: osmotic pressure causes a net inward flow of 7 mm HG

What is the relationship between SV, HR, and CO?

Hr= beats/min
SV = liters/beat
CO= liters/min
HR x SV = CO

Relationship between Blood Pressure, Pulse Rate, and Blood volume?

PR GOES UP, BP GOES UP
BV GOES UP, BP GOES UP

How do the following affect BP: Epinephrine, ADH, Angiotensin II, Aldosterone, Atrial Natriuretic Peptide, Histamine

Epinephrine- powerful vasoconstrictor (raises BP)
ADH-tells kidneys to not secrete as much fluid, causes a drop in BV (RAISES BP)
Angiotensin II-powerful vasoconstrictor (raises BP)
Aldosterone-helps regulate NA and Potassium levels. This controls BP and the balance of fluids/electrolytes in blood (Lowers BP)
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide-reduces BV (lowers BP)
Histamine- powerful vasodilator (lowers BP)

What are the two main heart sounds? What is happening in each one?

Lubb-AV valve closes
Dupp-SL valves

Primary lymphatic organs?
Secondary lymphatic organs?

1'-Red bone marrow
2'-lymph nodes, spleen

How are lymphatic vessels similar to veins?

Lymph vessels are similar to veins and arteries because they carry substances that are vital in the circulatory system. While veins carry blood, lymph vessels carry lymph which helps them support circulatory function. Most tissue fluid is returned to blood via lymph vessels.

Pathway of lymph formaton

Lymphatic capillaries,
afferent lymphatic vessels,
lymph nodes,
efferent lymphatic vessels,
lymphatic trunks,
two collecting ducts,
subclavian veins

What are the two lymphatic collecting ducts? What portions of the body do they drain?

right lymphatic collecting duct- drains upper right 25% of body
left lymphatic collecting duct- drains rest of body (75%)

The difference between barrier defenses and second line innate defenses is:

Barrier defenses:
Physical- skin, cilia, mucous membrane
Chemical-sweat, enzymes, acid

2nd line innate defenses:
interferons, definsins, collectins, NK cells, complements, phagocytes, fever, inflammation

4 cardinal symptoms of inflammation

calor (heat)
rubor (redness)
tumor (swelling)
dolor (pain)

Basic mechanism of antigen presentation and t-cell activation

A macrophage ingest a bacterium, then digest it and stips antigens from its surface. It then presents those antigens on its surface next to MHC. Helper T cells approach it and try to bind. Those that can react with both MHC and the antigens being presented are activated, those who can't remain dormant

Know the difference between CD4 Cells and CD8 cells. Differentiate between T-cells and B-cells.

CD4 cells activate CD8 cells. CD4 cells initate the attack while CD8 cells end the attack by killing the bad cells.
T cells signal and kill things, while B cells are used in the production of antibodies

B-cell activaton

B-cell receptor binds to antigen, Th cells release cytokines

5 lg classes

IgG - 80% - binds to viruses and toxins to neutralize/kill them.
IgA - 13% - bings to bacteria, toxins, and viruses - neutralizes/kills/prevents them from attatching
IgM- 6% - 1st antibody secreted, aggulation of bacteria, RESPONSIBLE FOR ABO MISMATCH REACTION
IgE- <1% - deagrulation of mast cells and basophils, mediates inflammatory response, allergic reactions, PARASITIC REACTION
IgD - <1%- B-CELL RECEPTOR

Know the difference between artificial and natural as well as active and passive acquired immunity.

Naturally acquired active immunity- getting chicken pox and then memory T Cells and B cells remember it so you don't get it again
Naturally acquired passive immunity-baby receiving antibodies from momma
Artificially acquired Active Immunity- person receives vaccine
Artificially acquired passive immunity - medication

Know the difference between chemical and mechanical digestions, and which is taking place at any given point in the alimentary canal.

Chemical - food is broken down into chemical components
Mechanical - food is broken down without chemically altering it
Mouth- mechanical/chemical
Pharnyx-mehcanical
Esophagus-mechanical
Stomach- chemical
Small intestine- chemical/mechanical
Large intestine- chemical/mechanical

Know the four layers of the alimentary canal (including all three layers of the mucosa), and the function of each layer.

1) Mucosa - 3 layers: epithelium, CT, Muscularis mucosa. Functions - absorption, secretion, protection.
2) Submucosa - mostly CT, transport and provide oxygen and nutrients of canal
3) Muscularis - 2 layers of muscle: circular layer (beneath submucosa) and longitudinal (responsible for peristalsis).
4) Serosa - outermost layer, Function- lubrication and free movement of canal within abdominal cavity.

Know the five major components of gastric juice and from where each component comes.

1) Hydrochloric acid (from parietal cells)-denatures protein and kills microbes
2) Mucous (from mucous cells)- protects tummy from acid and lubricates
3) Pepsin = protease (from chief cells) -breaks down proteins
4) Intrinsic factor - aids in B12 absorption
5) Gastrin - hormone (from G cells)

CCK functions

1. decreases gastric mobility to let you know you are full
2. signals pancreas to release enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
3.signals gall bladder to release bile into duodenum

know the 4 major pancreatic digestive enzyme classes

1) Pancreatic amylase (breaks down carbs/starch)
2) Pancreatic lipase (breaks down lipids)
3) Proteases (breaks down proteins)
4) Nucleases (break down nucleic acid)
know

What is the relationship between secretin, CCK, and the pancreatic solutions?

CCK and Secretin regulate pancreatic secretions.
Secretin - when duodenum is filled with intestinal chime, secretin is released from intestinal walls and signals trhe pancreas to release bicarbonate rich juice
CCK- once acid is neutralized, proteins and fats in duodenum trigger CCK release. CCK slows down the subject and also causes the pancreas to release enzyme rich juice.

1' digestive organs and accessory digestive organs

primary = mouth, pharnyx, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI
accessory = salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

why is poop brown

bile pigments (specifically bilirubin)

driving force behind pulmonary inspirtaiton?

atmospheric pressure

driving force behind pulmonary expiration?

elastic recoil of abdominal organs

Know the relationship between the anatomical changes that take place in the thorax and abdomen during inspiration and expiration and their influence on the intra-alveolar pressure

Tidal inspiration (normal) - larger thoracic area, pressure goes down
expiration - smaller thoracic area, pressure goes back to normal (up)

● What gases does the respiratory center of the brain monitor? Which is more important? Why?

O2 and CO2. CO2 is more important because the brain is mores sensitive to it and it messes with overall body pH.

know the pathway of urine formation and elimination

Afferent arterioles,
Glomerular capillaries,
Glomerular capsule,
Proximal convoluted tubule,
Descending limb of nephron loop,
Ascending limb of nephron loop,
Distal convoluted tubule,
Collecting duct,
Renal papilla,
Minor calyx,
Major calyx,
Renal pelvis,
Ureter,
Urinary bladder,
Urethra

renin/angiotensin system

Liver secrets angiotensinogen
Kidneys secrete renin, which turns angiotensinogen to angiotensin 1
Lungs secrete ACE which turns angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
Angiotensin 2 then:
1. increases thirst in hypothalamus
2. causes post. pituitary to release ADH
3. causes adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
4. causes systemic vasoconstriction
5. constricts afferent arteriole, which decreases GFR

targets of angiotensin 2 and how they raise BP

Angiotensin 2:
1. increases thirst in hypothalamus
2. causes post. pituitary to release ADH
3. causes adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
4. causes systemic vasoconstriction
5. constricts afferent arteriole, which decreases GFR

What are the two anatomical components of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

The juxtaglomerular apparatus is next to the glomerulus and is the point of contact between afferent arterioles and the distal convoluted tubule. 2 components:
1) Macula Densa - cells of the distal convoluted tubule in contact with arteriole
2) smooth muscle cells around arteriole near macula densa

How does water poisoning work?

not enough NA

explain the role of CO2 in the blood

H + HCO3 == H2CO3 === CO2 + H2O
If you add CO2, it pushes equilibrium to the left. Therefore, the concentration of H is increased. Since pH is the negative log of the H concentration, the pH will decrease (more acidic blood)

Be able to predict which direction a chemical buffering system will move given a shift in blood pH.

Buffers resist change in PH. Dissociation is more acidic, formation is more basic.
(H+) GOES UP - ACIDIC - PH GOES DOWN
(H+) GOES DOWN- BASIC - PH GOES UP

Know the relative speeds with which chemical buffers, the respiratory buffering system, and the renal buffering system work.

chemical- seconds
respiratory - minutes
renal - days

primary and secondary organs of male/female reproductive systems

Male Primary: testes
Male Secondary: penis, epididymis, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral gland, scrotum, coitus
Female primary: ovaries​
Female Secondary: fallopian tubes, vagina, uterus, labias, clitoris, coitus

Know the pathway of semen formation starting with spermatogenesis in the semeniferous tubules and ending with ejaculation

Seminiferous tubules,
rete testis,
epididymis,
vas deferens,
ejaculatory duct,
prostatic urethra,
membranous urethra,
penile urethra

know the semen components/function of each

Spermatozoa, prostatic fluid (milky/alkaline - enhance sperm mobility/neutralizes vagina ph),
bulbourethral fluid(converts urethra to reproductive organ by clearing it out with a lubricating fluid),
seminal fluid (alkaline and fructose rich that provides power to sperm cells

phases of follicular development

1. primordial follicle - single layer of squamous cells, oocyte in center, is dormant
2. primary (early) - single layer of cuboidal cells (make estrogen), is active
3. primary (late) - multiple layers of cuboidal cells
4. secondary (early) - small antrum begins to form
5. secondary (late) - larger antrum, takes up about half of follicle- oocyte still in center
6. tertiary follicle - huge antrum, oocyte pushed to edge and surrounded by corona radiata

Know the hormones of the female reproductive (menstrual) cycle: where they are secreted from, when they are secreted, and how that relates to follicular development.

LH - secreted at day 14 by anterior pituitary, triggers ovulation
FSH- secreted by anterior pituitary, day 14, stimulates ovarian follicles
Estradiol- produced by ovaries, increases size of ovarian follicle. Day 12-13ish
Progesterone- produced by ovaries, prepares body for conception, day 21-23ish

Know the various mechanisms of regulating pregnancy. Which ones are abortifacient?

Natural family planning,
Aboritfacient ones: IUDs, oral hormone contraceptives, not plant contraceptives, and injectable

-Know the differences between the following forms of inheritance: autosomal recessive, autosomal dominant, incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and sex-linked.

...

-Be able to perform crosses with all these forms of inheritance and predict the probabilities of children having conditions, being carriers, or having traits using all the above.

...

zygote

fertilized egg cell

fertilization

sperm + egg

cleavage

divison

2 cell stage

occurs after first cleavage

4 cell stage

occurs after second cleavage

morula

solid ball of cells formed on day 4 (embryo)

zona pellucida

the early blastocyst hatches from here

trophoblast

single layer of cells surrounding blastocyst that will eventually give rice to the placenta

inner cell mass

structure in blastocyst that eventually will give rise to all organs/tissues

blastocoele

cavity in blastocyte

blastocyst

embryonic stage that implants into endometrium

hypoblast

1 of 2 layers of the bilaminar disc, 1 layer of embryonic disc closest to yolk sac

epilblast

layer of embryonic disc closest to amniotic cavity (2nd layer of bilaminar disc)

syntiotrophoblast

grows from trophoblast into surrounding uterine tissue, eventually gives rise to placenta

ectoderm

germ layer 1 of embryonic disc - gives rise to nervous system, skin, cornea, eye lens

endoderm

germ layer 2 of embryonic disc - muscle, bone, blood, kidneys

mesoderm

germ layer 3 of embryonic disc - lines of digestive/respiratory tracts

gastrula

yolk sac + amniotic cavity

gastrulation

Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic development of most animals, during which the single-layered blastula is reorganized into a trilaminar ("three-layered") structure known as the gastrula. These three germ layers are known as the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

yolk sac

endodrm+mesoderm. makes blood

amnion

ectoderm+mesoderm. fills w/amniotic fluid (cushions baby)

allantois

endoderm surrounded by a little bit of mesoderm - becomes urinary bladder

chorionic villi

contains glucose,vitamins, amino acids/bathed in maternal blood/gas exchange of CO2 AND O2

umbilicus

umbilical cord

hcG

human growth hormone. secreted around time of implantation, halts degeneration o corpus luteum, pregnancy test tell tale sign

hPl

creates milk by making mammary glands functional

relaxin

gets everything ready for labor, then leaves so labor can start

trimester

3 month period

embryo

before placenta is formed, usually called this until about week 12

fetus

week 12 an on

parurition

labor and delivery

dilation

cervix opening up

expulsion

baby comes out

placental stage

placenta comes out

Does cell growth occur between cleavage events leading up to formation of the morula? What might this have to do with the size of the oocyte? (i.e. what is the relationship between the oocyte being the largest cell in the body and you answer to the first question)

No.
oocyte is huge - has to be big enough for all cell division to take place in it

2. Why must the blastocyst 'hatch' from the zona pellucida in order to grow in size?

it has to hatch from it to be able to implant on uterine wall

which component of the blastocyst integrates with the endometrim

synctiotrophoblast

Be able to list the major organs/tissue that are produced by each germ layer, or be able to name the germ layer from which a particular organ/tissue originated.

- Ectoderm - germ layer 1 of embryonic disc- nervous system, skin, cornea, eye lens
- Mesoderm - germ layer 2 of embryonic disc - muscle, bone, blood, kidneys, ct
-Endoderm - germ layer 3 of embryonic disc - lines of digestive/respiratory tracts

Be able to list all four extraembryonic membranes and which structures contribute to their formation

​- Yolk sac - endoderm + mesoderm. Makes blood.
-Amnion -ectoderm + mesoderm. Fills with amniotic fluid (cushions baby)
-Allantois - endoderm surrounded by a little bit of mesoderm - becomes urinary bladder
-Chorion - mesoderm + trophoblast - becomes placenta

Where does erythropoiesis occur in an embryo?

red bone marrow