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Acid chloride
Carboxylic acid + SOCl2
Ester (Fischer esterification)
Carboxylic acid + R’OH + HCl
Amide
Carboxylic acid + amine + DCC
Carboxylic acid (AC derived)
Acid chloride + NaOH + H2O (NaCl byproduct)
Ester (AC derived)
Acid chloride + R’OH + pyridine
Amide (AC derived)
Acid chloride + amine (2 eq.)
Carboxylic acid (AA derived)
Acid anhydride + NaOH + H2O (sodium carboxylate byproduct)
Ester (AA derived)
Acid anhydride + R’OH + pyridine
Amide (AA derived)
Acid anhydride + amine (2 eq.)
Ester hydrolysis under ACIDIC conditions
Raises ground state E of electrophile (makes it more electrophilic, such as protonation step)
Ester hydrolysis under BASIC conditions
Raises ground state E of nucleophile (makes it more nucleophilic, such as resonance creating negative formal charge)
Equilibrium of ester hydrolysis under basic conditions
Ester and NaOH favors formation of carboxylate, so H3O+ workup must be implemented to shift equilibrium