English Language Unit 3 - SAC 1A 2025

Functions of language

Descriptive, contextual information- Referential

Expressions of feelings- Emotive

Demands or requests- Conative

Being sociable- Phatic

Using language to discuss language- Metalinguistic

Using language poetically- Poetic/aesthetic

Situational context

Field- subject matter(e.g. weather)

Mode- whether its written or spoken

Setting- where it occurs or is published(e.g. shopping centre)

Text type- Category the text fits into(e.g. instructions)

Register

Formality of the text or discourse

Tenor

Relationship between those involved in the communicative act (e.g. speaker and listener and the social distance between them). It has to do with relative social power (e.g. who has the most authority or expertise. Can include factors such as age and experience.

Features of spoken discourse

Openings, closings, adjacency pairs, overlapping speech, backchanneling, discourse particles, non-fluency features

Opening

E.g.

• greetings at the beginnings of discourse

• Politely interrupting someone for attention or assistance

• Opening a speech with an anecdote or another strategy

Closing

E.g.

• Wrapping up discourse with a discourse particle(“anyway”)

• “See you next time”

• “Thanks for your help”

Adjacency pairs

• Turns which are found sequentially and have a close relationship with each other

• Open and close conversations

• Regulate turn taking

• Exchange information, seek elaboration and clarify doubts

• Provide immediate feedback or confirmation

• Request followed by granting or refusing

Backchanneling or minimal responses

Short turns by an interlocutor which do not take the floor and allow the other speaker to extend their turn

Can be words, phrases, laughter, nodding, vocal effects( e,g, murmur)

It can:

• Indicate they are listening

• Be supportive and encourage speaker to continue holding the floor

• Indicate agreement to what they are saying

• Manage topic by encouraging them to continue in the same semantic domain

• Attend to positive face by indicating agreement or interest

Overlapping speech

Can signal:

• agreement/support

• desire to take the floor

• emotions

• Misunderstanding of turn relevant place

• Fluent, confident

• Minimal response(listening noises, encouraging)

• Purposely interupting

Discourse markers/particles

Function

• “Discourse particles are small words which do not contribute to the propositional content of the utterance which they modify. They are frequent in conversation, where they express the speaker's attitudes to the addressee, negotiate background assumptions, express emotions and contribute to coherence”

• They can signal:

  topic changes

  openings and closings

  politeness

  Reformulations / repairs

  discourse planning

  Stressing / emphasising

  hedging

  backchanneling / minimal response

  They can be used to heighten the speaker's attitude; often one of disagreement or surprise

  They can be used to diminish the effect of otherwise exaggerated or intense language (hedging)

• E.g:

  Well

  Actually

  In fact

  Anyway

  So

  Like

  You know

  Oh

  I mean

  Basically

  Okay

  OMG

Non-fluency features

• Pauses- short breaks in conversation, indicated with (…)

• Filled pauses/voiced hesitations- e.g. um, er

• False starts- when the speaker starts to say one word and changes to another, e.g. I’ll see you on Thur- I mean Friday

• Repetition- accidentally repeating the same word or phrase, e.g. I I don’t think

• Repairs- speaker says something, and then re-states using. different words to clarify intended meaning, e.g. I’ll pick him up at 5pm. I mean, I’ll pick William up not Sam

Colloquial language

Informal language commonly used in interactions where people have a closed or relaxed relationship or wish to mark solidarity

!!it is standard english!!

!!colloquial change is slower than slang!!

E.g. contractions(wanna)

Slang

Informal lexemes or phrases which are often specific to a particular subgroup.

May be difficult for outsiders to understand and changes rapidly over time

Often includes words or phrases that have a different meaning within a particular group compared with the wider community.

E.g. slang(rn), shortening (fit), dead

Taboo language

Language that is deemed as impolite or unacceptable to speak about in most contexts

E.g.

• Bodily functions

• Death

• Mental health

Dysphemism

Functions

Negatively connoted words which are used to describe something in a harsh or blunt manner

Can be used to shock, convey strong emotion, add emphasis, express contempt, offend or insult

Swearing

Informal lexis which is considered offensive, blasphemous or obscene

Functions:

• expletive function

• abuse and insult

• expression of social solidarity

• stylistic choice

Emoticons, emojis and context-specific graphemes
What are there functions?

Functions:

• convey emotion or tone

• gesture

• be playful

• be concise

• mark identity and be a means of self expression

• personalise a message

• engage an audience

Emoticons: :P

Grapheme: r(are), u(you)

Strategies in spoken discourse

• Topic management

• Turn-taking

• Management of repair sequences

• Code switching

Topic management

Methods participants use to shift, maintain or loop domain

Strategies include:

• Minimal responses or backchanneling to encourage the other participant to continue with the same topic by showing interest

• Discourse particles can signal that the topic is about to change or loop back to a previous idea

• Interrogatives can be used to directly shift the topic or maintain the semantic domain

• Imperatives can be used to prompt the other participants to discuss the new topic, or to continue with a similar idea

• Declaratives can be used to shift topics

• Exclamatives can express excitement or surprise, thus prompting a shift in semantic domain

Turn-taking

• Taking the floor

• Holding the floor

• Passing the floor

Taking the floor

Strategies

Taking a turn in a conversation

Strategies include:

• Choosing to take the floor after someone has passed the floor

• Responding to a previous turn to ensure orderly turn-taking

• Interruption by overlapping with someone who is already speaking

Holding the floor

Strategies

Maintaining your turn

Strategies include:

• Placing pauses where the message is obviously incomplete

• Using prosodics

• Using filled pauses/ hesitation

• Keep talking when overlapped

• Say something that indicated you want a longer turn

• Encourage someone else to hold the floor with minimal responses

Passing the floor

Strategies

You have finished your turn

Strategies include:

• Prosodics to signal the end of your turn

• Longer pauses

• Indicate that someone else should take a turn by using their name or pronoun

• Sentence types to prompt the other person to respond or comment

Management of repair sequences

Participants realise that there is an error, miscommunication or problem in their own utterance or another persons contribution and repair their sequence with:

• Discourse particles, e.g. I mean

• Interrogatives, e.g. what did you mean by…?

• Declaratives, e.g. that doesn’t make sense

• Substitution of a word or phrase with an alternative which may be more precise or appropriate

• Re-phrase the utterance using different words

The use of informal language for various purposes and intents

• encouraging intimacy, solidarity and equality

• politeness strategies

• promoting linguistic innovation

• promoting social harmony, negotiating social taboos and building rapport

• supporting in-group membership

Intimacy

Close, personal and emotional relationship

The use of shared language or communication styles can foster intimacy

Strategies include:

• Expressing themselves in a similar manner or using shared intimacy

• Discussion of some semantic domains can mark intimacy

Solidarity

Perceived like-mindedness

Can refer to unity or shared purpose for those who are a part of the same group or community

Individuals use language to communicate shared beliefs and values, which can indicate belonging and group membership

Language choices can also express like-mindedness with regard to shared interests, social connections or cultural background

Equality

Can demonstrate by using:

• Inclusive language which avoids discrimination

• Respectful language

• Accessible language which is simple and clear

Negative face

Attending to negative face:

• Telling people what to do

• Asking for favours

• Avoiding offering or promising people something, leaving the other person feeling like they “owe” you

Threatening negative face:

• Requests which demand or hint that the participant should so something

• Offers or promises which might incur a debt from the other person

Politeness strategies- bald on record

Message is conveyed in a direct manner with no attempt to mitigate face needs

Straightforward/plain blunt

Can be appropriate in urgent or emergency situations

Can indicate social proximity amongst friends

Positive politeness

Attending to positive face

Indicating friendliness, respect and solidarity

Negative politeness

Strategies

Attending to negative face

Can be done by:

• Hedging

• Indirectness

• Apologetic language

Negative politeness- Off record politeness

Using indirect language to avoid imposition

Relies on hearer being able to infer the purpose of the speaker

E.g.

Speaker: “Do you have a spare pencil?”

Inference: “They need a pencil. I have a pencil. I will give them a pencil”

Linguistic innovation

Strategies

Being creative by using non-standard orthography, morphology and syntax

E.g:

• Word play

• Neologisms

• Emojis/emoticons

• Swearing

• Patterning

• Slang

• Newly coined jargon

Social harmony

Language used to show respect, acceptance, and friendliness

Promotes positive social relationships and avoid embarrassment and division

Inclusive and non-discriminatory language

Negotiating social taboos

Strategies to help make taboo language more palatable, humorous and light-hearted.

E.g:

• Slang or colloquial language

• Puns

• Vocal effects (laughter)

• Euphemisms

• Dysphemisms (shocks and amuses)

• Jargon

Rapport

Friendly connection or understanding between people in a conversation, or between author and audience

Strategies:

• Backchanneling to indicate listening and interest

• Inclusive language such as pronoun we

• Positive politeness strategies

• Mutually interesting semantic domain

• Interrogatives to indicate interest

• Humour

In-group membership

Language that signals membership of social and cultural groups

E.g.

• Slang

• Jargon