Section 1-10 Earth Science

GES 108

Earth Science

The study of Earth’s structure, composition, systems, and processes. It is ongoing, dynamic, testable, useful, and peer-reviewed.

Scientific Method

The process scientists use to investigate phenomena and build knowledge through observation, hypothesis, and testing. The steps include making observations, forming hypotheses, developing predictions, gathering data, refining or rejecting hypotheses, developing theories, and repeating the process.

Scales of Inquiry

The concept that scientists study phenomena across spatial and temporal scales to understand processes and patterns.

Spatial Scales

Focus on where phenomena occur and why they are distributed in specific locations.

Temporal Scales

Focus on when phenomena occur and how long they last.

Map Projections

Methods of representing Earth’s curved surface on a flat map. All projections introduce some distortion. Types include cylindrical, conic, azimuthal, and Mercator projections.

Map Scales

The ratio between distance on a map and distance on Earth’s surface, expressed as verbal, graphic, or representative fractions.

Topographic Elevation Map

A map that shows land elevations and shapes using contour lines connecting equal points of elevation.

Contour Line

A line connecting points of equal elevation. Closely spaced lines indicate steep slopes; widely spaced lines indicate gentle slopes. Contour lines never cross.

Contour Interval

The vertical distance between contour lines on a topographic map.

Longitude

Imaginary lines running from pole to pole measuring distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.

Latitude

Imaginary lines parallel to the Equator measuring distance north or south of it.

Prime Meridian

The 0° longitude line running through Greenwich, England, used as the reference for measuring east or west.

Equator

The 0° latitude line dividing Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Energy

The capacity to do work or cause change in matter.

Radiant Energy

Energy derived from light or electromagnetic radiation.

Chemical Energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds and released or absorbed during reactions.

Geothermal Energy

Energy from heat within Earth’s interior.

Kinetic Energy

The energy of motion; temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules.

Potential Energy

Stored energy that can be released to perform work.

Earth’s Physical Systems

The major open systems that exchange energy and matter

Atmosphere

The layer of gases surrounding Earth.

Biosphere

All life on Earth, mostly near the surface.

Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of Earth, including the crust and upper mantle.

Hydrosphere

All water on Earth in liquid, solid, or vapor form.

Feedback System

A process that amplifies or regulates changes within Earth’s systems.

Positive Feedback System

A self-sustaining process that amplifies change.

Negative Feedback System

A self-regulating process that counteracts change to maintain balance.

Hot Spot

A vertical column of magma rising from deep within the mantle, breaking through the lithosphere to form volcanoes independent of plate boundaries.

Hot Spot Track

A chain of volcanoes formed as a tectonic plate moves over a stationary hot spot, with older volcanoes farther from the source.

Folding

The bending of rock layers caused by compression.

Anticlinal Ridge

The upward arch or crest of folded rock layers.

Synclinal Valley

The downward trough of folded rock layers.

Faulting

The fracturing of Earth’s crust where movement occurs, often producing earthquakes.

Fault Block

A section of crust that moves along a fault, creating mountains or valleys.

Orogenesis

The process of mountain formation through tectonic activity.

Mountain Building

The combined processes, such as folding and faulting, that create mountains over time.

Mineral

A naturally occurring crystalline solid with a uniform chemical composition and structure.

Mineral Class

A grouping of minerals based on chemical composition and structure.

Silicate Minerals

Minerals composed primarily of silicon and oxygen, such as quartz and feldspar.

Non-Silicate Minerals

Minerals without silicon, including halides, oxides, sulfides, and carbonates.

Halide

A mineral formed when a metallic element bonds with a halogen, such as halite (NaCl).

Oxide

A mineral formed by a metallic element combined with oxygen, such as hematite.

Sulfide

A mineral composed of a metallic element and sulfur, such as pyrite.

Carbonate

A mineral composed of elements bonded with carbon and oxygen, such as limestone.

Rock

A naturally occurring solid made of minerals or organic material.

Rock Cycle

The continuous process of rock formation and transformation among igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic types.

Lithification

The process by which sediments compact and cement into solid rock.

Stratification

Layering in rock due to variations in deposition over time.

Igneous Rock

Rock formed by cooling and solidification of magma or lava.

Extrusive Igneous Rock

Rock formed from lava cooling quickly on Earth’s surface, producing fine grains.

Intrusive Igneous Rock

Rock formed from magma cooling slowly underground, producing coarse grains.

Batholith

A large underground body of intrusive igneous rock.

Sedimentary Rock

Rock formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments or organic matter.

Depositional Environment

The setting in which sediments accumulate, such as rivers or ocean basins.

Clastic Sedimentary Rock

Rock formed from fragments of preexisting rocks.

Organic Sedimentary Rock

Rock formed from remains of organisms, such as coal or fossil limestone.

Chemical Sedimentary Rock

Rock formed from precipitation or evaporation of minerals, such as gypsum.

Metamorphic Rock

Rock changed by heat, pressure, or chemical fluids.

Protolith

The original rock before metamorphism.

Contact Metamorphism

Metamorphism caused by direct contact with magma.

Regional Metamorphism

Metamorphism over large areas due to tectonic compression.

Petroleum

A fossil fuel formed from ancient marine organisms transformed by heat and pressure.

Natural Gas

A fossil fuel composed mainly of methane, found with petroleum.

Fracking

A process of extracting petroleum or natural gas by injecting pressurized fluid to fracture rock.

Shale

Fine-grained sedimentary rock containing petroleum or natural gas.

Pros of Fracking

Provides inexpensive fuel, jobs, and lower emissions than coal.

Cons of Fracking

Produces wastewater, induces earthquakes, releases methane, and delays renewable energy adoption.

Methane

A greenhouse gas 25 times more heat-trapping than carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse Gas

A gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, such as CO₂ or methane.

Air Pollution

The release of harmful substances into the atmosphere from natural or human sources.

Renewable Energy

Energy from naturally replenished sources like sunlight and wind.

Carbon-Neutral Energy

Energy that adds no net CO₂ to the atmosphere.

Solar Energy

Energy from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation.

Temperature

The measure of average molecular motion.

Celsius

Temperature scale where water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.

Fahrenheit

Temperature scale where water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F.

Kelvin

Absolute temperature scale with 0 K as absolute zero.

Heat

The transfer of energy due to temperature differences.

Conduction

Heat transfer through direct contact.

Convection

Heat transfer through the movement of fluids.

Advection

Horizontal heat transfer by wind or currents.

Radiation

Energy transfer by electromagnetic waves.

Ultraviolet Radiation

Short-wavelength solar radiation that can cause sunburn.

Visible Light

The portion of solar radiation visible to the human eye.

Infrared Radiation

Long-wavelength radiation emitted as heat.

Photon

A packet of radiant energy traveling as a wave.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The full range of electromagnetic radiation types.

Wavelength

The distance between wave peaks; shorter wavelengths have higher energy.

Shortwave Radiation

Solar radiation with wavelengths under 4 micrometers.

Longwave Radiation

Earth-emitted radiation with wavelengths over 4 micrometers.

Insolation

Incoming solar radiation reaching Earth’s surface.

Transmission

The passage of radiation through the atmosphere.

Reflection

The return of radiation without absorption.

Scattering

The random redirection of radiation by particles in the atmosphere.

Absorption

The conversion of solar energy to heat.

Albedo

The reflectivity of a surface; high albedo reflects more sunlight.

Greenhouse Effect

The warming of Earth by trapped infrared radiation.

Urban Heat Island Effect

The warming of cities due to low albedo and human activity.