Power and Authority in the Late Roman Republic

Cursus honorum

Political career ladder

Imperium

Legal power to command

Tribune of the Plebs

Elected protector of the people

Optimates

Conservative, aristocratic elite

Populares

Reformers appealing to the plebs

Latifundia

Big estates that dominated the countryside

Senate

Supposed to advise but really pulled the strings

Pontifex Maximus

Religious role that held political weight

Plutarch

Biographer with moral lessons; dramatic but gossipy

Appian

Focused on civil wars; clear structure, but selective

Sallust

Bitter, moralising ex-politician — thought Rome was doomed

Livy

Patriotic; wanted to show how awesome Rome used to be

Zanker

Said monuments were 'tools of self-promotion.'

lex agraria

Law that limited land holdings to 500 iugera cap

Ager publicus

Public land to be redistributed to the landless

Urban poverty

Result of small farmers fleeing to Rome

Army recruitment crisis

Crisis due to property requirement for enlistment

Corruption in provinces

Issue contributing to the challenges facing the Republic

Senate dragging its feet on reform

Senate's inaction on necessary changes

Tiberius Gracchus

Revived the lex agraria to address inequality

Gossip take on Tiberius

He tried to fix inequality — but skipped Senate approval

Restoration of peasant farming

Aim of capping elite land and redistributing it

Replenishing the citizen army

Goal of the land redistribution to support military needs

Grain subsidies

Pleb favourite that provided financial support for grain.

Equites as jurors

Shifted power from the Senate to the equestrian class.

Colonies for the poor

Initiatives aimed at providing land and resources to impoverished citizens.

Citizenship extension to Italians

Gaius Gracchus' attempt to grant citizenship rights to Italian allies.

Senate's methods of opposition

The Senate's strategy of eliminating opposition rather than debating.

Delayed legislation

A tactic used by the Senate to stall reforms proposed by Gaius Gracchus.

Stirred up mobs

The Senate's method of inciting public unrest against Gaius Gracchus.

SCU (Senatus Consultum Ultimum)

Legal cover used by the Senate to justify the killing of Gaius' supporters.

Gaius Gracchus' death

Gaius was hunted down and killed, with over 3,000 of his allies executed.

Changing role of the tribunate

Transformation from a pleb protection office to a tool for revolutionary action.

Tribunate as a weapon

The Gracchi set a precedent for tribunes to act as disruptors in the power struggle.

Impact of Gracchan reforms on Senate power

The Senate lost control and moral authority, leading to future power grabs.

Organised violence as a political tool

The use of assassination and violence instead of debate in political conflicts.

Tiberius' murder

He was clubbed to death in front of the Temple of Jupiter.

Gaius' death during a riot

He was killed during a riot orchestrated by the Senate.

Ancient interpretations of the Gracchi

Plutarch viewed them as tragic heroes; Appian emphasized class war; Cicero criticized them as demagogues.

Modern interpretations of the Gracchi

Scullard saw them as reformers exposing Senate weakness; Bradley viewed their reforms as necessary but reckless; Stockton noted class conflict as central to their downfall.

Marius' early life

Marius came from Arpinum, a provincial town, and was a novus homo who rose through military skill.

Marius' military career

Elected consul in 107 BCE, he captured Jugurtha and was elected consul six times.

Marius' military reforms

He recruited landless citizens into the army, providing them with equipment and a promise of land.

Social impact of Marius' reforms

Landless men gained a path to status and wealth through military service.

Political impact of Marius' reforms

Soldiers became loyal to their general, undermining Senate authority.

Military impact of Marius' reforms

Established a professional standing army that was loyal to generals.

Client armies

Phenomenon where soldiers owed their livelihood to their general, leading to personal armies.

Example of client armies

Generals like Marius, Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar used client armies for political goals.

Marius' successive consulships

Marius broke norms to stay in power, setting a dangerous precedent for future leaders.

Tribunate changes during Marius' lifetime

Marius empowered radical tribunes like Saturninus to push through land reforms, leading to violent street politics.

Senate's response to tribunes

The Senate used the SCU (Senatus Consultum Ultimum) to kill Saturninus, showing how broken things were getting.

Impact of Marius' reforms

Marius' reforms permanently altered Roman politics and paved the road for civil war.

Client army

The client army became the new normal, with violence entering mainstream politics.

Sulla's transformation

Plutarch describes Sulla as a wild youth who transformed into a cold, calculating commander.

Sulla's election as consul

Sulla was elected consul in 88 BCE and received the command to fight Mithridates.

Marius' plot against Sulla

Marius had the tribune Sulpicius pass a law transferring the command back to him.

Sulla's unprecedented move

Sulla marched on Rome with his army, an unprecedented act for a Roman general.

Sulla's soldiers' loyalty

Sulla's troops were loyal to him rather than to Rome or the Senate.

Sullan reforms

Sulla increased the Senate from ~300 to 600, curbed tribune power, and reasserted Senate authority.

Scullard's view on Sullan reforms

Scullard says Sulla tried to 'stiffen the weakened framework of the Republic.'

Bradley's critique of Sullan reforms

Bradley argues that Sulla's reforms were 'cosmetic' and ignored real social and economic tensions.

Sullan Restoration effectiveness

Sulla's reforms began to unravel immediately after he stepped down due to unresolved core issues.

Plutarch on Sulla's resignation

Plutarch noted that Sulla resigned the dictatorship as if it were of no great importance.

Sulla's legacy

Sulla left the Republic with a handbook for tyranny, marked by proscriptions and violent precedent.

Marius' impact on Roman politics

Marius gave Rome the tools that Caesar would one day use to destroy it.

Violence in Roman politics

Violence became a mainstream aspect of politics during Marius' time.

Senate's distrust

The Senate turned to vigilante justice, indicating a loss of trust in the constitution.

Sulla's command in the East

Sulla received the command to fight Mithridates, which was a prestigious military position.

Sulla's soldiers' actions

Cassius Dio describes soldiers rushing into the Forum as though into battle.

Sulla's constitutional overhaul

Sulla launched a constitutional overhaul after becoming dictator, including codifying the cursus honorum.

Sulla's reforms and core issues

Sulla's reforms did not address core issues like land, inequality, and veteran unrest.

Sullan Restoration

Sulla's attempt to restore ancestral customs (mos maiorum) which ultimately failed due to the fractured state of the Republic.

Proscriptions

Sulla's brutal practice of posting names of enemies in the Forum, allowing anyone to kill them for a reward, leading to over 500 senators and 2600 equites killed.

Pompey's Early Career

Pompey began his military career at 23 by backing Sulla during the civil wars and raised a private army.

Extraordinary Commands

Temporary superpowers granted to Pompey by special laws, allowing him to bypass normal procedures.

Lex Gabinia

The law that granted Pompey supreme command over the Mediterranean and 50 miles inland to defeat pirates in 67 BCE.

Lex Manilia

The law that gave Pompey control over the Mithridatic War and all eastern provinces in 66 BCE.

Marius' Reforms

Changes that made the rise of client armies and political violence likely, contributing to Rome's moral collapse.

Pompey's Discipline

Plutarch praised Pompey for his discipline but also described him as arrogant and ambitious.

Sulla's Dictatorship

Sulla's dictatorship had no time limit, allowing him to implement extensive reforms.

Senate's Authority

Sulla reasserted Senate authority over legislation and courts during his dictatorship.

Political Violence

The increasing use of violence in Roman politics, exemplified by Sulla's actions.

Sulla's Troops

Sulla's soldiers were described as following him into Rome, showcasing their loyalty to him.

Senate's Makeover

Sulla's reforms aimed to strengthen the Senate but were criticized as merely cosmetic.

Rome's Moral Collapse

Historians view Sulla as both a symptom and cause of the decline in Roman morals.

Cicero's View on Pompey

Cicero referred to Pompey as 'the only man capable of saving the Republic' in his Pro Lege Manilia speech.

Sulla's Resignation

Sulla resigned the dictatorship as if it were a position of little importance.

Appian's Description

Appian noted that those merely suspected of opposition were killed to instill terror.

Sulla's Old Enemies

Children of Sulla's old enemies were barred from holding office as part of his proscriptions.

Sulla's Military Weaponization

Sulla weaponized the military against his own government, marking a significant shift in Roman politics.

Pirate War (67 BCE)

Ended in 3 months; cleared the sea, restored grain supply, boosted Pompey's glory.

Mithridates + the East (66-62 BCE)

Crushed Mithridates, took over Syria, annexed Judea, and reorganised the East into a Roman client system.

Pompey's return from the East

He returned with immense wealth, loyal troops, and unprecedented prestige.

Appian's quote on Pompey

Pompey left the East pacified and full of Roman law.

Lex Gabinia (67 BCE)

Proposed by tribune Aulus Gabinius; gave Pompey command over the entire Mediterranean and coastal zones.

Imperium maius

Superior command over any other general.

Reason for Lex Gabinia's passage

Passed due to grain shortages, public panic over piracy.

Plutarch's quote on Lex Gabinia

The whole sea was swept clean like a stage before a performance.

Lex Manilia (66 BCE)

Proposed by Gaius Manilius; transferred command of the Mithridatic War from Lucullus to Pompey.

Cicero's support for Lex Manilia

Even Cicero backed it to build popular support.