Sports Science Option B

Definition of Personality

Relatively stable and enduring aspects of individuals that distinguish them from others. Makes them unique, but at the same time allows a comparison between individuals.

Social Learning Theory and Personality

Bandura (1977)

• We have the capacity of learning through observation, even with the absence of reward.

• People model the behaviour of role models through observation

• Personality constantly changes through experiences

• May have negative or positive effect on sports + exercise setting

• SLT influenced by self-efficacy (self belief)

Interactionist approach to personality

Behaviour = Function of Personality x Environment

• Behaviour changes depending on the situation (environment)

• Genetic and environmental influences are intertwined

• Eg. behaviour in sport depends on time, event, importance, audience

3 levels of personality

Psychological core

• Most internal level, remains constant over time

Typical Response

• Changed and learned behaviours that reflect the makeup of personality

• Responds to environmental situations

Role-related behaviour

• Most external level, dynamic and changeable

• Consequence of immediate environment

Issues with the measurement of personality

• Participants may falsify responses to conceal perceived weakness

• How to distinguish between psychological traits, typical behaviour, and role-related behaviour

• Data collection (interviews, questionnaires, observing behavior)

• Validity and reliability issues

• Ethical issues: confidentiality, use of results, predicting performance.

• Fluctuations before and during comp

Issues in personality research and sports peformance

• May discourage non athletes from attempting a sport

• Those not demonstrating personality assigned to a sport

• Predicting performance rather than natural progression + environmental factors

• Confidentiality, use of results, predicting performance

Definition of Motivation

Internal mechanisms + external stimuli which arouse and direct behaviour

2 types of motivation

Intrinsic motivation

• Engagement in activity for enjoyment + self satisfaction of engagement itself

Extrinsic motivation

• Engagement in activity is stimulated from external sources (eg. praise, awards, money, trophies)

Impacts of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation in sport

Strengths

• Provide information about quality of performance

• Information rewards increases intrinsic motivation

Limitations

• Extrinsic rewards can be seen as controlling behaviour

• Controlling rewards reduce intrinsic motivation

Atkinson’s model of achievement motivation

Achievment motivation = deire to succeed - fear of failure

Motivation is a balance between need to achieve success (NAS) and to need to avoid failure (NAF)

NAS

• Desire to succeed far outweighs the need to avoid failure

• High achievers show persistence , perseverance, risk taking

• Attributes success to internal factors

NAF

• Fear of failure outweighs desire to succeed.

• Low achievers lower effort when task is difficult

Goal orientation theory

Achievement goals + Perceived ability = achievement behaviour
- Individual’s main concern = demonstrate high ability + avoid demonstrating low ability

Task Oriented = Individual focuses on mastering task, learning skill, and self improvement (linked to intrinsic motivation)

Outcome/ego Oriented = Individual focuses on demonstrating superior ability and winning with less effort than others (linked to extrinsic motivation)

Attribution Theory + Weiner’s classification

Attribution = perceived causes of events and behaviour. Affects future effort + performance

• Examines whether athlete puts their success/failure down to luck, skill or external factors

Weiner’s classification for causal attributions

• Locus of stability (Stable/unstable reasons) eg. ability vs luck

• Locus of causality (Internal/external) eg. individual effort or ref?

• Locus of control (In one’s control/ out) eg. skill and plan vs weather

Self-serving bias: successful performance attributed to oneself, failure is deflected on external factors (out of their control)

Learned helplessness: Athlete feels they have no control over whether they succeed or fail. Athlete feels they are doomed to fail -negative impact on performance

Self-serving bias

Successful performance attributed to self, failure deflected onto external factors

Learned helplessness

Athlete feels they have no control over whether they succeed or fail

• leads to reduced effort for difficult tasks

• Either way, they believe they are doomed to fail

Definition of Arousal

• Immediate response to a stressor that is governed by the sympathetic nervous system

• Causes an increase in heart rate

3 Theoretical approaches to arousal

• Drive reduction theory (Linear relationship)

• Inverted U theory

• Catastrophe theory

Catastrophe theory

• Relationship between cognitive anxiety and physiological arousal to predict performance

• When arousal is too high, performance drops rapidly = choking

Arousal-performance relationship (Draw diagram)

(Inverted U theory)

Performance - Arousal (High → Low)

Peak = optimal arousal, optimal performance

Emotions that may influence athletes’ behaviour

Positive emotions

• Excitement + pride can affect focus ad improve performance (give eg.)

Negative emotions

• Anger, guilt, anxiety can de-motivate and reduce performance (give eg.)

Anxiety definition

A feeling of worry about something with an uncertain outcome

Cognitive anxiety vs Somatic anxiety

Cognitive anxiety = worry, confusion, apprehension

• Chain of thoughts with negative, uncontrollable effects

Somatic anxiety = physiological arousal

• Awareness of physiological changes provides signal of anxiety

• In form of butterflies, shaking, nausea

Trait anxiety vs State anxiety

Trait anxiety (Innait)

• Relatively enduring characteristic

• Characteristic of personality

• High trait anxiety = prolonged excessive stress

State anxiety (Situational)

• Temporary negative emotion

• Linked to situation

• Developed as a response excessive, irrational fear of highly stressful situations

How is anxiety measured?

Trait = Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)

• Analyses responses to statements about themselves to determine anxiety levels in competitive situations

• Easy, cheap, valid reliable

State = CSAI-2R

• Questionnare on how participants feel at particular moment

• Immediately prior to competition

• Frequently used to assess state anxiety in sport psychology research

• Easy, cheap, valid, reliable

Describe the stress process

Substantial imbalance between demand and response capability

• Environment - causes of stress

• Personality - influence of trait anxiety

• Response - stress response (reaction)

• Behaviour - outcome that leads to deterioration or improved performance

Discuss psychological skills training

3 phases of a PST programme:

• Education phase = athlete learns about importance of PST, affect on performance, and how they work

• Acquisition phase = learns strategies + technique for specific psychological skills they require

• Practice phase = develops appropriate psychological skills programme through repeated practice and use in competitions

PST is not a quick fix

PST is not only for elite/problem athletes

Goal setting

Associated with enhancing self-confidence and motivation

SMARTER - specific, measurable, achievable, realistic

Types of goals:

• Outcome - objective + comparison with others (Eg. winning, trophy)

• Performance - focused on product of performance + independent of others (Eg. personal best record)

• Process - focused on strategy/ technique/feel + independent of others (Eg. feel of swing, plan)

Mental imagery

Using all senses to recreate experience in the mind (External = 3rd person, Internal = 1st person)

Benefits:

• Improves concentration

• Builds self confidence

• Effective skill acquisition

• Cope with injury

Relaxation techniques

Associated with arousal regulation and reducing somatic and cognitive anxiety

1. Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) reduces muscular tension

2. Breathing techniques control HR

3. Bio feedback used to monitor somatic symptoms

Experienced users can utilise the strategy during competitions

Used by variety of athletes to maintain optimal levels of arousal

Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR)

• Muscle groups are tensed for a couple seconds before being relaxed

• Reduces muscular tension

• Experienced users can utilise the strategy during competitions

• Used by variety of athletes to maintain optimal levels of arousal

Breathing Techniques

• Control heart rate and reduce muscular tension

• Used to calm body and distance the mind from negative thoughts + anxiety

• Experienced users can utilise the strategy during competitions

• Used by variety of athletes to maintain optimal levels of arousal

Biofeedback

• Used to monitor somatic symptoms

• Instruments measure physiological systems

• Eg. heart rate, muscle activation, skin temperature

Self-talk techniques

Internal dialogue'

• The goal is to create positive self-talk and minimise negative self-talk

• Thought stopping of negative thoughts