chapters 11-14 open ended

what are the main functions of the skeletal system

1. supports the body

2. protects internal organs (ie: skull protects brain)

3. helps with movement (works with muslces)

4. produces blood cells in the bone marrow

5. stores minerals like calicum and phosphate

name three main types of muscles

1. skeletal muscle

2. cardiac muscle

3. smooth muscle

what types of joints are the hip, knee, and ankle? and what movements do they allow

• hip: ball-and-socket— flexion, extension, adduction, abduction

• knee: hinge— flexion, extension

• ankle: hinge— plantarflexion (downward), dorsiflexion (upward)

these synovial joints enable smooth, controlled movement during exercises like squats and lunges

what is a synovial joint

• freely movable joint that with a fluid-filled cavity

• these joints have synovial fluid that reduces friction and allows smooth movements

ie: shoulder joint, ankle joint

what happens to bones and muscles as people age

• ageing affects the musculoskeletal system, making movement harder and increasing the risk of falls or fractures

• bones may lose density

• muscles may shrink or lose strength

• joints may become stiff

what are the diffce btwn ligaments and tendons

• ligaments connect bone to bone whereas tendons connect muscle to bone

• ligaments help stabalise joints whereas tendons help muscles move bones

which bones are mainly involved during squats and lunges

1. pelvic bones (ilium, ischium, pubis)

2. femur (thigh bone)

3. patella (kneecap)

4. tibia and fibula (lower leg bones)

these bones form the hip, knee, and ankle joints which are all active during lower limb exercises

during calf raise, which joint is moving, and which muscles are working

• ankle and gastrocnemius soleus

• these muscles contract to lift the heel off the ground, pointing the toes downward (plantarflexion)

why feel sore in thigh and calves

• muscles work harder than usual during exercises causing tiny tears in the muscle fibres

• as body repairs, these small tears in the muscle become stronger

• this healing process can make muscles feel sore for a day or two

• muscle sore is a normal response when body is getting used to new movements

main sections of small intestine

1. duodenum

2. jejunum

3. ileum

what is primary function of the small intestine

small intestine is the main site for digestion and absorption of nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals

which structural feature increases the surface area of the small intestine for absorption

• villi

• these are small, finger-like projections of the mucosal lining that are covered with epithelial cells

• each villus contains a network of capillaries and lymphatic vessel (lacteal) to efficiently absorb nutrients into the bloodstream and lymphatic system

what is the role of microvilli on the absorptive cells of the small intestine

• microvilli are smaller projections found on the surface of enterocytes that make up the villi

• these microvilli form the brush border which further increases the absorptive surface as it contains enzymes that assist in the final stages of digestion like maltase, sucrase, and lactase.

what type of muscle is found in the wall of the small intestine, and what is the function

• smooth muscles

• it is arranged in circular and longitudinal layers

• it performs peristalsis which moves food along the digestive tract

what does the different protein do

1. antibodies: support immune system by identifying and neutralising harmful pathogens

2. collagen: structural protein that strengthens and stabilises tissues such as skin, tendons, bones

3. haemoglobin: RBCs, responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissues

4. insulin: regulatory protein (hormone) that helps maintain blood glucose balance by signalling cells to absorb glucose after meals

which important function of the small intestine is likely to be affected after a surgery

after surgery, may have difficulty absorbing nutrients such as fats and vitamins since small intestine is the main site for nutritional absorption

why pale oily stools

body may not be absorbing fats properly due to loss of bile sat reabsorption in the ileum leading to fat malabsorption

define GI and why it matters

• glycaemic index is a ranking system that measures how quickly carbohydrate-containing foods raise blood glucose levels after eating.

high GI: digested quickly and cause a rapid rise in blood sugar

low GI: digested more slowly and produce a gradual increase

• type 2 diabetes makes blood glucose control essential. After small bowel resection, shortened intestine absorbs sugar more rapidly, increasing risk of post-meal glucose spikes

• low GI foods help slow down carbohydrate digestion, reducing sudden rises in blood sugar, helping manage symptoms like dizziness and fatigue

what is role of bile in digestive process

bile helps emulsify fats in small intestine breaking them into smaller droplets aiding digestive enzymes like lipase

what is primary function of gall-bladder in fat digestion

• gall-bladder stores and concentrated bile

• bile is released into the duodenum to help break down dietary fats

which duct transports bile from liver to duodenum

• common bile duct starts where the common hepatic duct (from liver) joins the cystic duct (from gall-bladder). This union forms a single-tube, the common bile duct, which then continues downward to deliver bile bile into the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine)

common bile duct= common hepatic duct + cystic duct

what are complications associated with gallstones blocking common bile duct

when gallstones block the common bile duct, bile cannot flow properly from the liver and gall-bladder into the small intestine causing:

1. fat digestion reduction— may lead to pale, oily stools as fats are not broken down and absorbed well

2. fat soluble vitamins (DEAK) may not be absorbed properly, leading to defeciencies

3. jaundice (skin turn yellow) may occur as bilirubin builds up in the body

4. risk of inflammation or infection of the bile ducts or gall-bladder

5. pancreatitis could occur if pancreas affected