Psychology Exam 1 Study

Influences of philosophy and physiology

Philosophy brought up questions of mental functions versus the structure of the brain and nature versus nurture, physiology showed scientific methods could be applied to answering questions about behavior and mental processes.

Empiricism

A philosophical theory stating that all knowledge originates from sensory experience

Structuralism

The belief that even our most complex conscious experiences could be broken down into elemental “structures” or component parts of sensations and feelings

Functionalism

Emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavior and mental experiences

Wilhelm Wundt

Generally credited as being the founder of psychology as an experimental science

Titchener

Developed structuralism, trained research participants in the procedure of introspection

William James

His ideas became the basis for functionalism, helped bring psychology to the United States

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

Received the first Ph.D. in psychology awarded in the United States, founded the first psychology research laboratory in the United States

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

Conducted research in dreams, memory, and personality. First woman elected president of the APA

Psychoanalysis

A personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious factors in determining behavior and personality

Behaviorism

Emphasized the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning

Humanistic Psychology

Emphasized each person’s unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction

Positive Psychology

Focuses on the study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social institutions that foster those qualities in individuals and communities.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how humans perceive, think about, and remember information about the world around us.

Evolutionary Perspective

The application of the principles of evolution to explain psychological processes and phenomena.

Applied Psychology

Applying the findings of basic psychology to diverse areas; examples include sports psychology, media psychology, forensic psychology, rehabilitation psychology, and military psychology

Biological Psychology

Exploring relationships between psychological processes and the body’s physical systems; neuroscience refers specifically to the study of the brain and the rest of the nervous system

Clinical Psychology

Focusing on the causes, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological disorders

Cognitive Psychology

Researching mental processes, including reasoning and thinking, problem solving, memory, perception, and language

Community Psychology

Promoting research-based social justice, as well as positive cultural, political, and economic change at local, national, and international levels

Counseling Psychology

Helping people adjust, adapt, and cope with personal and interpersonal challenges; improving well-being, alleviating distress, and resolving crises

Developmental Psychology

Studying physical, social, and psychological changes that occur at different ages and stages of the lifespan

Educational Psychology

Applying psychological principles and theories to methods of learning

Experimental Psychology

Studying basic psychological processes, including sensation and perception, and principles of learning, emotion, and motivation

Health Psychology

Researching psychological factors in the development, prevention, and treatment of illness, as well as stress and coping; promoting health-enhancing behaviors

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Understanding the relationship between people and work

Personality Psychology

Explaining the nature of human personality, including the uniqueness of each person

School Psychology

Applying psychological principles and findings in primary and secondary schools

Social Psychology

Understanding how an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior are affected by social environments

Sigmund Freud

Developed a theory of personality based on uncovering causes of behavior that were unconscious

John B. Watson

Championed behaviorism, studying how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences

Carl Rogers

Founded Humanistic Psychology, emphasized the conscious experiences of his clients as well as self-determination, free will, and the importance of choice in human behavior

Scientific Method

A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions

Theory

A tentative explanation that tries to account for diverse findings on the same topic

Hypothesis

A tentative statement that describes the relation between two or more variables

Operational Definition

A precise description of how the variable in a study will be measured, manipulated, or changed

Setting-field vs. Laboratory

Realism and Chaos versus Control but Possibly Altered Behavior

Self-Report vs. Observational

Internal states and Cheap but Easily Biased versus Actual Physical Behavior, Expensive, and Observer Bias

Descriptive Research

Uses scientific procedures for systematically observing and describing behavior

Correlational Research

Examines how strongly two variables are related to, or associated with, each other

Experimental Research

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relations by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor

Random Assignment

A process by which every member of the larger group has an equal chance of being selected for inclusion in the sample

Placebo

A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects

Double-blind Technique

An experimental control in which both the participants and the researchers are “blind",” or unaware of the treatment or condition to which the participants have been assigned

Demand Characteristics

Subtle cues or signals expressed by the researchers that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant

Informed Consent

A psychologist ensures a client or research participant fully understands the procedures, risks, benefits, and rights before agreeing to treatment or participation

Confidentiality

Mental health professionals are required to keep client communications private

Debriefing

The requirement to explain an experiment’s true purpose after it concludes

Neuroscience/Biological Psychology

Scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes; the study of the nervous system, especially the brain

Neurons

Basic cells of the nervous system, receive and transmit electrochemical information

Sensory Neurons

Convey information about the environment

Motor Neurons

Communicate information to the muscles and glands of the body

Interneurons

Communicate information between neurons, most neurons in the nervous system

Glial Cells

Provide neurons with energy, physically support axons, prevent chemicals from entering the brain, and act as an immune system

Cell Body

Contains other structures and the nucleus, also called the soma

Dendrites

Receives chemical messages from other neurons

Axon

Carries information from the neuron to other cells in the body

Myelin Sheath

A white fatty covering that is wrapped around the axons of some neurons in the brain, has gaps called nodes; speeds up signals

Dendritic Growth

Neurons send axons that travel to different brain areas and form synapses with the dendrites of other neurons

Resting Potential

The state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if there is enough input to reach the stimulus threshold

Synapse

Point of communication between two neurons

Synaptic Vesicles

Hold special chemical messengers called neurotransmitters that are manufactured by the neuron

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from the receptor and are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and reused

PET Scan

Tracks the brain’s use of a radioactively tagged compound

MRI

Uses electromagnetic signals generated by the body in response to magnetic fields

Action Potential

A brief electrical impulse that transmits information along the axon of a neuron

Stimulus Threshold

The minimum level of stimulation required to activate a particular neuron

The Nervous System

Up to 1 million linked neurons throughout the body in a complex, organized communication network

Central Nervous System

The Brain and Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous Systems

The Nervous System besides the Brain and Spinal Cord

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral, receives info from sensory receptors and reports to the central, sends motor signals to muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral, automatic functions like heartbeat, breathing, and digestion

Sympathetic Nervous System

Part of the autonomic, rapidly activates bodily systems to meet demands

Parasympathetic Nervous Systems

Part of autonomic, conserves physical resources

Brainstem

Made up of the Hindbrain and Midbrain

Hindbrain

Region at the base of the brain containing several structures that regulate basic life functions: medulla, pons, and cerebellum

Midbrain

Relay station that contains centers involved in the processing of sensory information, and sense signals that influence complex processes like attention

Forebrain

Largest and most complex brain region, which contains centers for complex behaviors and mental processes

Lateralization

One side of the brain primarily processes specific psychological or cognitive functions

The Work of Roger Sperry/Split Brain Operation

Information sent to the right/nonverbal hemisphere couldn’t be verbally described but could be identified

Corpus Callosum

Thick band of axons that connects

Occipital Lobe

Back of each hemisphere, receiving area of visual info

Temporal Lobe

Near temples, receives auditory information

Parietal Lobe

Above temporal, processes body’s sensations

Broca’s Area

Critical for speech production

Aphasia

Partial or complete inability to articulate ideas or understand spoken/written language due to brain damage

Wernicke’s Area

Crucial for comprehension of language

Hippocampus

Part of the temporal lobe, forms new memories of events and information

Thalamus

Processes and integrates sensory information, relays that information to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, and sexual behavior; connects with the endocrine system

Frontal Lobe

Largest lobe, processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control

Amygdala

Emotional Response

Acetylcholine

Learning, memory, muscle contractions

Dopamine

Movement, attention, reward and reinforcement

Serotonin

Emotional states, sleep, sensory perception

Norepinepherine

Physical arousal, learning and memory, sleep regulation

Glutamate

Excitatory messages, movement and conscious thought, learning and memory

GABA

Primary inhibitory messages, sleep, and memory

Endorphins

Pain perception and positive emotions