Unification of Italy - In class

Peters Notes - Credits to mira and grace

General context to Italy at this point

Ideas from the French Revolution and the Enlightenment are circulating. Fragmented states are all over Europe. Italy will attempt to become something while falling short. Corruption is high in the Italian government due to how the country was formed. The United Provinces (Netherlands), Venice, and Switzerland were all conservative republics at the time. Britain was a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament.

There was a spread of Romanticism in the 18th century. Romantic artists and writers sought to express personal feelings in freer forms than that of the Classical period. Romanticism meant less respect for authority and more individuality. Dress and manners became less formal, and with them meant a slow replacement of the old aristocratic world as there was renewed interest in joining nationalities.

Who was the singular unifying character?

There is no singular person that stands out as the unifying character of Italy. However, there are several characters that stand out in the unifIcation process.


1. Guiseppe Mazzini
2. Guiseppe Garibaldi
3. Camilo Cavour
4. Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)
5. Pope Pius IX
6. Emperor Franz Joseph (Austria)
7. Charles Albert (Carlo Alberto)
8.  King Victor Emmanuel II

Guiseppe Mazzini

* Ideas guy, intellectual
* Similar to robespierre and marat love child, but behind the scenes + wrote a lot
* Born in Genoa 
* Someone who wrote lots of essays and papers but most of them failed
* Became a part of the government after the second Italian war of independence but they were overthrown in 1848
* He’s a revolutionary
* Heavily opposed marxism, advocated for social justice and women’s rights
* Karl Marx and Mazzini wrote letters to each other
* Marx hated the church but Mazzini liked god but not the pope
* Mazzini is an Italian nationalist, Marx is not about that where the real struggle was between economic classes. Mazzini was like culture is important, we’re not all exactly the same.
* He always dressed in black, he thought Italy was dead and wanted the “rebirth” of Italy. 
* His Role
* Organized a bunch of uprisings in 1848 and was active in specifically northern Italy
* Riots were suppressed by Austrian forces
* Believed in irredentism - the idea that Italy can’t be complete until all Italians are united. We can’t stop until we’re all a complete whole nation. 

Guiseppe Garibaldi

* Warrior/battler 
* He embraced nationalism, called on of Italy’s father of the fatherland
* A sea merchant, which got him ahead in the military
* He was well-traveled
* Exiled to South America for revolutionary activities and did uprisings against the Argentine government and got some popularity because it was successful
* been to Switzerland, China, and United-States
* All about fighting to achieve justice and not beyond killing people for it
* He’s known as the leader of the red shirts
* He was on some ranch and they were butchering something and their shirts were red because they were drenched in blood.
* The red shirts are all about killing and became a symbol. 
* Role:
* Puts them under the control of King Emmanuel the Second
* He’s a supporter of Italian Unification
* A lot of people saw him as a hero, looked to him as guidance
* The stereotypical machismo Italian Character

Camilo Cavour

* Politician
* Background
* Born during Napoleonic rule in piedmont, sent to military school at age 10
* Developed liberal tendencies while in the army when studying the works of Bentham and Constant - made him a suspect to police forces
* In paris he was inspired by parliamentary debates, confirming his devotion to a political career
* Beliefs
* Economic progress > political change
* Stressed advantages of railroad construction in peninsula
* Sponsored the building of railroads and canals
* Chose any means necessary for the greater good (even if it’s violence)
* Early political career
* After the French Rev + spread of liberalism, he could enter the political arena without fearing police
* Gave a speech in favor of constitution for piedmont, eventually granted
* Never planned to unify italy, wanted to expand piedmont by annexing Lombardy and Venetia
* Role: 
* used Realpolitik to form an alliance with France and provoke a war with Austria, ending Austrian rule in Italian regions and gaining the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
* Realpolitik: a system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations
* Has a newspaper: II Risorgimento? (it means rebirth)

Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)

* Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte
* Became the president of France, performs a coup and becomes the Emperor
* Both were dictators
* Used the legend of his Uncle (Napoleon Bonaparte) to gain support
* Moved to Rome/Italy when he was 15 because his name was dangerous and was a supporter of Italian Unification
* Tried to perform a coup for unification but it didn’t work
* Napoleon and Gabor(idk) sit down and get the ball rolling for unification.

Pope Pius IX

* Born in 1792
* Considered liberal in his earlier years
* Liberal action: i literally cannot hear him something to do with jewish people
* Changed to conservative
* Most popes will be conservative
* If you're religious: you should be aiding the poor + not be oppressive
* So you seem like you have sympathy
* Caused people to think hes liberal but hes acc not
* Was popular initially
* Freed political prisoners
* A bunch of revolutionaries
* Allowed Jewish people to practice their faith
* Patron of the arts
* Lost popularity
* Refused to go to war with Austria
* Prime minister was killed
* Was put into exile and appointed conservative gov (1848)
* Rome was invaded
* Excommunicated garibaldi

Emperor Franz Joseph (Austria)

* General 

Franz Joseph was the emperor of Austria (1848–1916) and king of Hungary (1867–1916). He divided his empire into the Dual Monarchy, in which Austria and Hungary coexisted as equal partners. In 1879 he formed an alliance with Prussian-led Germany.

* In 1914 his ultimatum to Serbia led Austria and Germany into World War I.
* Early Life
* Franz Joseph was born 18 August 1830 in the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna
* Franz Joseph was consistently built up as a potential successor to the imperial throne by his politically ambitious mother from early childhood.
* Franz Joseph was troubled by nationalism during his entire reign. He concluded the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which granted greater autonomy to Hungary and created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. He ruled peacefully for the next 45 years, but personally suffered the tragedies of the execution of his brother Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico in 1867, the suicide of his son Crown Prince Rudolf in 1889, the assassination of his wife Empress Elisabeth ("Sisi") in 1898, and the assassination of his nephew and heir-presumptive, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in 1914.
* Largely considered to be a reactionary, he spent his early reign resisting constitutionalism in his domains.
* Against Italian Unification!
* Many assisination attempts and everyone around him seemed to die
* Worked hard to get people to love/respect the king
* Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria was a major player in the events leading up to the Italian unification in the mid-19th century. Initially, he sought to maintain the status quo and preserve Austrian control over the Italian states that were part of the Austrian Empire, including Lombardy and Venetia. He believed that the fragmentation of Italy into numerous small states was advantageous to Austrian interests, and he was opposed to the idea of Italian unification.
* In 1859, the Kingdom of Sardinia, under the leadership of Count Camillo di Cavour and General Giuseppe Garibaldi, declared war on Austria in an effort to unify Italy. Despite initial setbacks, the Sardinian forces were eventually victorious, and the Austrians were forced to withdraw from much of Northern Italy.
* Emperor Franz Joseph I responded by authorizing military intervention in Italy and seeking the support of other European powers, including France and Russia, to intervene on his behalf. However, these efforts were unsuccessful, and the Italian unification movement continued to gain momentum.
* In the face of these developments, the Emperor gradually came to accept the reality of Italian unification and, in 1866, he signed treaties recognizing the newly formed Kingdom of Italy. This marked a significant shift in Austrian policy and signaled the end of Austrian influence in Italy.

 Charles Albert (Carlo Alberto)

* From Piedmont
* Born October 1798, died 1849
* Grew up in Paris during French Rev - exposed to liberal ideas
* Participated in expedition against spanish rebels
* Becomes more conservative as time goes on before he becomes king
* Issued Constitution Statuto 
* Becomes the first constitution for Italy/not very liberal because it came from the King
* Liberalized some institutions 
* Led forces against the Imperial Austrian army in the first Italian Independence 
* The whole point about Italian Unification is that they fail a lot. 

King Victor Emmanuel II 

* Becomes first King of Italy as a constitutional monarch
* King of sardinia after father was abdicated, later became king of Italy

What are some Potential Forces of Disunity?

* Racial/Ethnic disparity/Religious - Not being the same cultural identity can cause fracturing 
* People are more sympathetic to their own cultural group and thus do not want to lose their control/sense of community. They have a personal interest in maintaining their group is not swarmed.
* Differing political views
* Little consensus. There were liberals, radicals, conservatives, and Italian nationalists. They emerged at the time of the FR - political awaking. **Cabonari** - was prominent.
* Economic/ Wealth Disparities - massive divisions of wealth 
* Poorer regions will want to extract wealth and richer regions will want to conserve their properties. This can create disunity as disagreements will arise from the allocation of resources in governing. North Italy had centuries of wealth accumulated while the South was generally poor. Even Napolean viewed Northern Italy as separate from the South.
* Geographical Disparities 
* There was a peninsula, but it was further divided into a number of states. They each hold a strong tie to their states
* Differing social status
* The rich exploit the poor, because who gets to determine the governing system - the rich. 
* Disputes on what sort of policies to be formed 
* All troubles will arise from the sheer number of systems of governments introduced at this point.
* Religious epicenter 
* Church is profoundly conservative and against unity. Catholicism is ingrained in Europe and specifically Italy, so, therefore, this sways the masses against it. 
* Poverty in most of the peninsula
* The critical mass does not include the masses, who were impoverished and could not afford to be politically aware. If you decide to get the peasantry involved as shown with the example of the French Revolution this can become tumultuous. 
* Foreign Power meddling 
* At this point, the major powers had little to gain from the emergence of a unified Italy.
* Italy maintained a passivity and pessimism in political affairs.
* 19th-century reform movements lacked 
* Ongoing conflicts/violence
* Differing Languages

What are the potential forces of unity?

1. The peninsula had given rise to the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church and the Renaissance. Perhaps their past could be used to bring them together.
2. While the peninsula was not linguistically one, the many Italian dialects held much in common. Learning a unifying dialect was a possibility
3. It is a peninsula it has clearly defined geographical boundaries
4. Liberal ideology provided the mechanism to hopefully overcome the forces of disunity
5. The vast majority of Italians were Catholic; there was a possibility that Catholicism could be used to bring people together
6. There was a growing sense of anti-Austrian sentiment
7. A foreign power may see it in its interest to have a unified Italy and help in its construction.
8. Tired of being manipulated by stronger powers. Need to unify to protect themselves from a common enemy

Timeline of Italian Unification

Napoleon

* Brought freedom of speech, made it easier for Italian unification to be communicated

The revolutions

* The liberal reforms ended up learning to nationalism 
* Liberal reforms fail
* Once they fail, realize the reason is that they are not unified
* 1848: see Italian states coming to the assistance of other Italian states
* Revolutions of 1848
* Working together to form an “Italy”
* Austria is going to come to crush these revolutions
* Austria is doing this because they don’t want certain groups to gain national ideas, which will split Austria apart.

Political visions for the Future of Italy

They have to come up with the system of government that will become Italian


1. Gsuiseppe Mazzini’s vision - a republic
2. Cesare Balbo’s vision - a constitutional monarchy
3. Vincenzo Gioberti’s vision - a loose federation with the Pope as president (This would also briefly be the vision of Napoleon III)
4. Metternich’s vision - a politically divided and easily manipulated entity. He wants it to remain as it is

Failed attempts at reform within the Italian Peninsula

At that time, everyone wanted liberal reforms (usually through constitutions that limit the power of their leaders/governments) but no one was really thinking about Italian Unification yet. 

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The Revolutions of 1820-21 and 1831-32

Where: Naples, Sicily, and Piedmont
Background: these reform movements were inspired by liberal uprisings in Spain. The Spanish reintroduced a liberal constitution that was revoked following the Congress of Vienna


1. Naples: Began here in January 1820 and was organized by the Carbonari. Ferdinand I agreed to liberal reforms. He implemented a constitution based on the Spanish model.
2. Sicily: the island was forcibly joined to Naples in 1815. Felt that Ferdinand II was neglecting their needs. Saw troubles in Naples as an opportunity to break free. The Neapolitan governor was sent home.
3. Piedmont: Ruled by the restored monarch of Victor Emmanuel I. Carbonari organized a new government and declared itself to be the “Kingdom of Italy”. Victor Emmanuel I abdicated. The new gov unwisely declared war on Austria. Piedmont took on the role of “liberator” of Lombardy and Venetia. This action was undertaken by a very young Charles Albert. The plan was that once liberated the new “Kingdom of Italy” would be ruled as a constitutional monarchy.

**The International Scene**
Major powers in Europe at this time were trying to develop the Congress System. In both the Congress of Troppau (1820) and the Congress of Laibach (1821) it was decided that Austria would restore Ferdinand I back to power. Once back in power, Ferdinand sent his army off to Sicily and won back control of the island. In Piedmont Charles Felix replaced Charles Albert and called on Metternich to crush the revolutionary “Kingdom of Italy”. This was accomplished at the Battle of Novara.

The Revolutions of 1831-32

Where: Modena, Parma, and Bologna (Part of the Papal States)
Background: Inspired by events in Paris. Revolution brought down Charles X and brought in Louis - Phillippe “the citizen king”


1. Modena - Led by a student Enrico Misely who wanted to see his leader Duke Francis IV become the leader of a united Italy. Duke Francis found out and had Misely arrested. This inspired student revolts and the creation of a provisional government
Inspires uprisings in the surrounding states
2. Parma - students here were inspired by events in Modena to rise up against Duchess Marie-Louise. A provisional government was also formed
3. Bologna - uprisings broke out against the oppressive rule of church authorities. “The Government of the Italian Provinces” was declared
All these were brutally suppressed by Austrian troops. Interestingly, France in the case of Bologna sent its navy to the Adriatic to check Austrian influence in the region. While the French were not directly militarily involved, this foreshadowed future French involvement in Italian affairs
All of them failed because there was an absence of will from the regions with uprisings

Why the failures between 1820-32?

Speculative territory (mostly speculative stuff)


1. Primarily local affairs
2. Revolutionary movements were more reformist than truly revolutionary, not as committed to violence as their opponents
3. Did not possess the means to deal with Austria
4. Had no help from a major power (France) against Austria
5. Primarily middle class affairs. They lacked the critical mass and commitment to be legitimate political movements
They wanted to keep unification an elite affair
6. Austria was committed military to maintaining the status quo
7. The will of the people was broadly illiberal. It had a conservative essence best represented by strong Catholic faith of many “Italians”
If the Catholic church isn’t on board, then you won’t get much support
Now Mazzini comes along and says “we aren’t working together” so he created this general tent
You don’t have to be bourgeoisie, or from a specific region, as long as you love the ideal of a unified Italy
You can worry about other things after we defeat Austria

Young Italy

* Out of the failures of the 1820s and 1830s, Mazzini decided to form a new secret society. He named it “Young Italy”. It was open to youth (under 40) and was designed to bring together the various splinter groups throughout the peninsula around the central idea of unifying Italy. Nationalism was to become the driving force of this political organization, they would work with practically anyone who had this objective in mind.

Risorgimento - Means “rising again” in Italian. The idea was to help arouse the national consciousness of the Italian people

Background to the 1848 Revolutions

1: Pope Pius IX was elected Pope on June 16, 1846
Viewed as a liberal (reforming) Pope. Amnesty for political prisoners. Explored judicial, educational, and economic reforms (planned to build railways linking Rome to other parts of Italy). He relaxed censorship laws. Organized a “Consultative Assembly” made up of representatives of the various Papal States
Mazzini and Garibaldi wrote him letters of encouragement. There was some hope that Pius IX could inject some religious fervor into the unification process


2. Poor harvests and economic struggles took place between 1846-49. Famine emerged in the peninsula and other parts of Europe
3. Fearing rebellion, Metternich stationed troops in the northern Papal States in late 1847
4. Shortly after the rebellions broke out in Sicily, Louis Philip abdicated from France. This accelerated risings throughout Europe

The 1848-49 Revolutions - A Promising Start

Where: throughout the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Naples, Piedmont, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, Lombardy, Venetia, and the Papal States
1: Uprisings began in Sicily (January 1848) as they continued to desire independence/autonomy from Naples and Ferdinand II
2: In February, uprisings took place in Naples. King Ferdinand II agreed to issue a constitution. This bought him enough time to regroup and send troops to Sicily and reunite it with Naples. Due to popular pressure he offered to send troops to Piedmont to help in fight against Austria
From this point on many uprisings took place throughout the peninsula simultaneously. In March Metternich fled for Britain
Piedmont - Constitution “The Statuto” was granted by Charles Albert
Tuscany - Constitution was granted. Leopold also agreed to send troops to Piedmont
Papal States - Constitutions were granted by Pius IX
Lombardy - Provisional government was set up to fight against Austria. “Tobacco Riots” of March 1848. Asked for help from Piedmont and Charles Albert agreed.
All these risings emerged, Charles Albert feared that if he did not take action he would be swept from power by republicans. Plebiscites were held in Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and Venetia to join with Piedmont. It looked like momentum was on Charles Albert’s side. Battle of Goito “First war of Italian Independence” was a brief win for Piedmont (May 1848). Had more to do with Austrian retreat
Puis IX also sent an army to Northern Papal states (to protect them in case Charles Albert decided to invade). His general (Durando) disobeyed the pope, however, and decided to join in with Charles Albert against the Austirans. Durando stated that his army was sanctioned by the Pope, this was not the case and Pius IX was furious.

Allocution of Pope Pius IX, 29 April 1848

* “We, though unworthy, represent on Earth Him who is author of peace and the lover of charity, and Our Supreme Apostolate obliges us to love with equal paternal affection of all peoples and all nations… We must reject the insinuations…of those who would wish the Roman Pontiff to be President of some new Republic to be created by all the peoples of Italy together. On the contrary… we passionately exhort \[the peoples of Italy\]... to remain faithful to their Princes… Were they to act otherwise, they would not only be falling in their personal duty, but would also run the risk of Italy ending up divided by discord and internecine factions.”
* If the pope speaks out against Italian unification, it disincentivizes the Catholics from joining. It’s going to be very difficult to politicize the peasantry if the pope rejects the idea.

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The Tide Turns against Piedmont

* After his victory in Gioto, Charles Albert did not push further into Lombardy “King Wobble ''. This gave the Austrians (General Radetzky) time to regroup; they met Charles Albert and defeated him at the Battle of Custoza in July of 1848

A Glimmer of Hope in Rome

* Rioting forced Pope Pius IX to flee Rome in November 1848, This allowed Mazzini to return to form the Roman Republic (Hope is now gone)
* He immediately set to work organizing elections throughout Italy. These representatives were to form a “Constituent Assembly”. Mazzini set about establishing the basis for the new republic. He brought in liberal reforms, but the Republic was very short lived (about 4 months).
* Mazzini’s initial success inspired Charles Albert to try to find the Austrian’s again. Interestingly, Mazzini offered Charles Albert troops (Charles Albert did not return the favor). He lost at the Battle of Novara in March of 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II.
* Pope Pius IX called out to foreign powers for help and Louis Napoleon sent 40 000 troops. By July 1848, Garibaldi and his troops were defeated
* Garibaldi in a speech to his men stated: “I can offer neither pay, nor shelter, nor food. I offer hunger, thirst, forced marches, battles and death.”
* His hope was to continue the revolution to the north and inspire revolution in the countryside. 4000 of his “volunteers” joined him but the peasants showed little desire to do likewise.
* Things are in many ways worse because now you have Austria using force to suppress any possibility of change AND you have France using force to suppress change as well. 

1848-49 Revolutions - Failure

The three biggest factors that contributed to failure


1. Pope Pius IX - a) Allocution of April 1848 rejected war with Austria b) 1849 - excommunicated all who tried to reduce the temporal powers of the church and denounced the Roman Republic
2. The efforts of Charles Albert weren’t enough (Piedmont)
3. The collapse of the Roman Republic (Mazzini and Garibaldi) due to the intervention of Louis Napoleon
While evidence existed that the Italian states were working together, they didn’t seem to be working towards the same goal in terms of the type of Italy they were hoping to achieve.

Why did Pius IX become increasingly conservative?

* Could not stand by and see Italians fight other Italians or Austrians (all were Catholic). Feared the loss of his temporal powers (the Papal States)

Why did Charles Albert fail?

Not decisive (“King Wobble”), hesitated in sending troops to Lombardy. Negotiated a union between the central Italian states and Piedmont after initial win in the Battle of Goito rather than actively fighting against Austria. During that pause, Austria regrouped and defeated Piedmont at the Battle of Custozza (July 1848). A second decisive defeat by Austria at the Battle of Novara (March 1849) spelled the end of Charles Albert. While he received help from other Italian states, it wasn’t enough. The Allocution issued by PIus IX in April contributed to this.

Why did the Roman Republic collapse?

* French involvement. Louis Napoleon got catholic support back home in France so he was incentivized to restore Pope Pius IX which meant going against the Roman Republic. France is so much stronger than the Roman Republic so that’s how it fell.

The Final Outcome

* Ultimately Austria was able to reclaim Lombardy and Venetia and to restore order in Tuscany, Modena, and Parma. Ferdinand II crushed the revolts in Sicily and never implemented his promised constitution. The French restored Pope Pius IX and remained in Rome until 1870
* The only success was that the constitution “The Statuto” granted by Charles Albert in Piedmont remained in place. This constitution would eventually become the constitution for a united Italy. Piedmont would now become the most liberal state in the peninsula.
* Why was Piedmont allowed to keep The Statuto? (no idea: good IA topic)

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Crimean War 1854-56

general description

* The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from 1853 to 1856, primarily on the Crimean Peninsula in the Black Sea region. The conflict was mainly between the Russian Empire and an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia.
* The conflict began as a result of a dispute over control of the Holy Land and Christian holy sites in the Ottoman Empire, which was then being claimed by both Russia and France. The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in October 1853, and soon the other European powers joined the conflict.

Main participants of this war

* Russia: main religion = orthodox 
* Expansionist 
* The Russian Empire was led by Tsar Nicholas I during the Crimean War. The country had long sought to expand its influence in the region, and had annexed the Crimean Peninsula in 1783.
* Ottoman Empire: main religion = muslim/islam
* Maintain status quo
* The Ottoman Empire was led by Sultan Abdulmejid I during the Crimean War. The empire had long been in decline and sought the support of the other European powers to help it withstand Russian aggression.
* Britain: main religion = protestant/anglican
* Maintain status quo
* Britain was led by Prime Minister Lord Aberdeen during the Crimean War. Britain had been concerned about Russian expansion in the region for some time, and saw the conflict as an opportunity to contain Russia's influence.
* France: main religion = catholicism
* Expansionist 
* France was led by Napoleon III, who had come to power in a coup d'état in 1851. France's primary interest in the conflict was to challenge Russia's dominance in the region and gain control of the holy sites in the Ottoman Empire.
* Piedmont: main religion = catholicism 
* wants foreign allies (get allies by fighting alongside others)
* Expansionist
* Sardinia was led by King Victor Emmanuel II during the Crimean War. The country joined the conflict on the side of the Western powers in the hopes of gaining international recognition and prestige.
* Russia, Britain, France and Piedmont are Christian
* Their unifying factor was Christianity against the Ottoman Empire’s Muslim religion


* Out
* Austria: have a lot of internal issues after 1848
* Hungary + Croats want to break away
* Got help from Russia to get rid of internal Hungarian revolutions (restored Austria)
* Austria now in debt to Russia 
* Maintain status quo
* Prussia 
* Expansionist

Key Events

* The Battle of Sinop (1853): On November 30, 1853, the Russian Navy attacked a Turkish fleet in the Black Sea port of Sinop, sinking several ships and killing over 4,000 Turkish sailors. This event led to a declaration of war by the Ottoman Empire against Russia.
* Siege of Sevastopol (1854-1855): The city of Sevastopol, located on the Crimean Peninsula, was the site of a long and brutal siege by the Western powers. The siege lasted for over a year, from September 1854 to September 1855, and resulted in heavy losses for both sides.
* The Charge of the Light Brigade (1854): On October 25, 1854, during the Battle of Balaclava, a British cavalry unit famously charged straight into the Russian artillery, resulting in heavy losses for the British.
* The Battle of Inkerman (1854): On November 5, 1854, the Russian Empire launched a surprise attack on the British and French armies near the town of Inkerman. Despite being outnumbered, the Western forces were able to repel the attack and achieve a hard-fought victory.
* Treaty of Paris (1856): On March 30, 1856, the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially ending the Crimean War. The treaty recognized the independence and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, guaranteed the rights of Christians in the Ottoman Empire, and prohibited Russian warships from entering the Black Sea. The treaty also marked the beginning of a new era in European diplomacy, as the major powers began to work together more closely to maintain the balance of power on the continent.

Italy after 1850

Events after 1850

Italian Unification

Background

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* SInce Italy was unable to achieve unity on her own, it became increasingly apparent that the help of a foreign power would be needed. The Crimean War (1853-56) set the stage for relations to develop between Cavour and Napoleon III
* The Orsini Affair (January 1858) - Failed attempt on Napoleon III's life that killed 8 and injured 150 people. Done by Count Felice Orsini in the hope that a republican government would replace Napoleon III and come to the aid of Italy.
* A Secret Meeting that took place between Napoleon III and Cavour at Plombieres on July 24, 1858.

The Discussions at Plombieres

* A quote of Cavour from a letter to Victor Emmanuel II following the meeting.
* “As soon as I entered the Emperor's study, he raised the question of the purpose of my journey. He began by saying that he had decided to support Piedmont with all his power in a war against Austria, provided that the war was undertaken for a non-revolutionary end which could be justified in the eyes of diplomatic circles, and still more in the eyes of French and European public opinion.”

The agreement

1. Napoleon would provide 200 000 troops. Piedmont and other Italian states would provide 100 000
2. The peninsula would become reconfigured into four states. Piedmont would become the most powerful as it would receive Venetia and Lombardy
3. France would receive Nice and Savoy
4. A marriage would be arranged between Victor Emmanuel’s daughter and a cousin of Napoleon III

The Task

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* To bring about the conditions needed for Austria to declare war on Piedmont. Victor Emmanuel opened parliament by rallying Italians to rise up against Austria and Cavour mobilized the pIedmontese army at the border of Lombardy. Austria demanded that PIedmont mobilize, Piedmont refused and Austria declared war on April 29, 1859.

War against Austria (Second War of Italian Independence)

Piedmontese and French troops defeated Austria at two significant battles: the Battle of Magenta (June 4, 1859) and the Battle of Solferino (June 24, 1859). The agreement was to seize Venetia but Napoleon III backed out and made a truce with Emperor Franz Joseph at Villafranca (July 11, 1859).

Why did Napoleon back out?

1. Napoleon III didn’t have the stomach for war 2, Austrians retreated into an area of Venetia that was difficult to attack (Quadrilateral)
2. Prussia indicated they may become involved
3. The central Italian states supported union with Piedmont (This made Piedmont stronger than Napoleon had desired)
4. The PIedmontese army was so poorly organized it didn’t even show up on time for the Battle of Magenta

Outcome (Treaty of Villafranca)

1. Piedmont received Lombardy but it first passed to France. Napoleon wanted to be able to present Lombardy as a gift to Piedmont
2. Tuscany, Modena, Parma were to be restored
3. Austria maintains Venetia
4. Cavour was outraged and resigned
5. France was denied Nice and Savoy

Circumstances work in Piedmont’s Favor

While Cavour was out of office, events unfolded that were advantageous to Piedmont


1. The assembly in Tuscany voted for union with Piedmont
2. Modena, Parma, Romagna united into a new state called Emilia and then its assembly also voted to join a union with Piedmont
Outcome
The king of PIedmont was now significantly enlarged, but so much so that there were worries that Napoleon III would take military action against it. In order to prevent this Cavour was brought back and Nice and Savoy were handed over to France
In each case, plebiscites were held to legitimate the transference of territory

Garibaldi vs. Cavour - Contrasting Figures

* Cavour, as a politician, was much more pragmatic and cautious; he feared continued foreign intervention if Italy was unified too quickly. A divided Italy was more useful to both Austria and France if difficulties emerged between these powers. A unified Italy could be a threat. Cavour also initially thought too many differences existed between northern Italy, southern Italy, and Rome to be successfully unified. He remained always suspicious of Garibaldi and his republican sympathies. Cavour also feared a peasant led revolt as it could veer off in unknown directions.
* Garibaldi had become obsessed with removing foreign influence from Italian soil and felt bold action was required to do so. Garibaldi had devoted his life to unification and was less interested in the political implications of his actions. For Garibaldi opportunities needed to be seized and exploited if he wanted Rome, Venetia, Naples, and Sicily all brought into the Italian fold at once. He believed that unification required bold action that could inspire and excite Italians.

Garibaldi’s boldness

* Although Garibaldi offered his services to Victor Emmanuel II in the fight against Austria in 1859, Victor Emmanuel rejected his help as he was skeptical of Garibaldi’s true intentions. Garibaldi instead joined a regiment in Lombardy where he received a gold medal for valor.
* Garibaldi was so disappointed that Nice was to be handed over to France that he set out to take military action to prevent the planned plebiscites. During that time, rebellion had broken out in Sicily and Garibaldi decided to seize this moment to complete Italian unification.

Cavour's response

* Cavour found himself in serious political difficulties
* Why?
* Cavour was opposed to the full unification of Italy. He didn’t think the south could be integrated into the north (large cultural and economic differences)
* He feared that Garibaldi's attempt would bring about a military response from Austria or France
* Opposing such a popular patriot as Garibaldi would reduce Cavour’s popularity throughout the peninsula
* In the event of Garibaldi succeeding, Italy could be thrown into a civil war if Garibaldi refused to hand over his conquests to Victor Emmanuel
* Worried Garibaldi would invade Rome which would turn all Catholics against Italy

Garibaldi and “The Thousand”

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* Garibaldi set sail for Sicily on May 5 and reached Marsala on May 11. From Marsala “The Thousand” marched towards the capital Palermo. His 1000 troops had now risen to 3000. He confronted a Neapolitan army of 25 000 and won. The remainder of the Neapolitan army retreated back to Naples.
* Garibaldi appointed himself dictator and struggled with the task of governing the island. In  an effort to restore order he eventually allied with the landlords in order to crush a number of peasant revolts.
* From a report informing Cavour of events in Sicily ti was noted
* Garibaldi is greatly beloved. But no one believes him capable of running a government … No one wishes to wound him, but all are determined not to tolerate a government which is no government…He is troubled, irritated, and weary beyond belief and his conversation clearly shows that the cares of government are crushing and overwhelming him.

Garibaldi was not yet prepared to hand Sicily over to Victor Emmanuel; he was now in the limelight and planned to use Sicily as a staging point to take over Naples and then Rome.

The British Response

* With Garibaldi on the move, Napoleon watched as things slipped out of his control. Napoleon requested to Britain they blockade the Straits of Messina to prevent Garibaldi from landing in Naples. The British came out publicly in support of Garibaldi’s efforts.
* Napoleon now had to think twice before sending more troops of his own to prevent full unification of the peninsula.

Cavour Fears the Worst

As Garibaldi’s army swelled up to 60 000 men, Cavour feared that if garibaldi succeeded in Naples and Rome, he would then try to create a southern Italian republic. This would then compete with Victor Emmanuel’s rule and possibly result in civil war.


1. Cavour tried to arrange a revolt in Naples in support of Victor Emmanuel but failed. He then decided bold action was required in order to prevent further gains by Garibaldi
2. Cavour then sent ships to the Straits of Messina to prevent him landing in Naples, this effort also failed (By August, Garibaldi had become dictator of Naples). His next step was Rome and Cavour feared major foreign involvement if the Pope was ousted.
3. Cavour’s final effort was to send the Piedmontese army, headed by victor Emmauel, through the Papal States to prevent Garibaldi from seizing Rome.
Cavour and Napoleon reached a secret agreement: if Cavour could stop Garibaldi from taking Rome, France would not interfere.
Once Garibaldi succeeded in taking over Sicily and Naples, Cavour reassessed Garibaldi’s efforts.
Garibaldi has done the greatest service that a man can do, He has given the Italians self-confidence. He has proved to Europe that Italians can fight and die in battle to reconquer a fatherland.

The Kingdom of Italy is Declared (March 17, 1861)

* After moving through the Papal States VIctor Emmanuel and Garibaldi met in October 1860. Tensions were high, but Garibaldi diffused the situation by immediately bowing down and then saluting Victor Emmanuel as “the first King of Italy”.
* As his reward Garibaldi was offered the rank of Major General, the title of Prince, a large pension and a castle. Garibaldi refused them all as he was offended that Victor Emmanuel had not signed a proclamation of thanks to his “Red Shirt” soldiers

Venetia (1866) and Rome (1870) would eventually be added to Italy due to events related to the German Unification

**How were foreign powers influential to the development of Italy to 1861?**

* **Austria**
* **Hindering unification**
* **Explain why**
* **Hates nationalism because Austria will be ripped apart from it. There are a lot of different nations that make up Austria as a state**
* **Don't say “Austria actually lead to unification because they made Italy hate them”**
* **Not really straightforward or intentional**
* **France**
* **Hindered at first** 
* **Crush Mazzini and Garibaldi and brought back the pope**
* **Helped: by 1858**
* **For a different set of reasons (Orsi**
* **Even when he helps, he doesn't help to the extent that he agreed to (Plombieres)**
* **Pope and the church**
* **Technically could be a foreign power**
* **Prussia**
* **Britain**
* **Supported Garibaldi when he was on his campaign to Naples coming from Sicily**
*  Need to talk about why they did what they did, not only what they did 
* Plausible explanation to explain why they did what they did + how it helped/hindered

Problems After Unification

1. Instability, war and desire to construct a strong military drained finances. Taxes increased significantly throughout the peninsula
2. To build unity federalism was rejected. Administration became centralized on the Piedmontese model. For many, it appeared Austrian domination had merely been replaced by PIedmontese domination. Much effort was put into putting down uprisings in Naples and Sicily between 1862 and 1866.
3. Venetia and Rome were added to Italy more due to the actions of France and Prussia than to the actions of Italians. The idea of a passive, disinterested. and weak Italy persisted.
4. The Catholic Church turned increasingly against the Italian state. Former recognition would not be given until 1929.
5. The north was economically stronger and more populated than the south. Its’ dominant political influence created deeper resentment between the two regions.
6. Italy remained far behind the other industrial powers of Europe. If unification was about developing strength, it hadn’t succeeded as much as many had hoped.
7. Following unification, suffrage was severely limited. Only about 2% of the population could vote (by 1992, only 7% could vote). The Statuto remained. Victor Emmanuel II did not change his name.
8. Two more attempts by Garibaldi to take Rome ended in failure. In 1862, Garibaldi was defeated by Piedmontese troops and in 1967 he was defeated by French troops.

**Mazzini’s view of the kingdom of italy**

* The Italy which we represent today, like it or not, is a living lie. Not only do foreigners own Italian territory on our frontiers with France and Germany, but even if we possessed Nice and Trieste, we should still have only … the dead corpse of Italy.
* Italy was put together just as though it were a piece of lifeless mosaic, and its battles which made this mosaic were fought by foreign rulers who should have been loathed as our common enemies. Lombardy, scene of the great Five Days in 1848, allowed herself to be joined to Italy by a French despot. The Venetians, despite their heroic defense in 1849, came to us by permission of a German Monarch. The best of us once fought against France for the possession of Rome… Southern Italy was won by volunteers and a real movement of the people, but then it resigned its early promise and gave in to a government which still refuses to give Italy a new national constitution.
* The battles fought by Italy in this process were defeats…Italians are now without a new constitution that could express their will. We can therefore have no real national existence or international policy of our own. In domestic politics… We are governed by a few rich men…Ordinary people are disillusioned. They had watched…as Italy, once ruler of the civilized world, began to rise again; but now they turn away their eyes and say to themselves: “this is just the ghost of Italy.”