Sociology & Science

What is positivism?

The view that sociology can and should be studied scientifically, using methods similar to the natural sciences.

What are the four sources of knowledge identified by Wallace?

Authoritarian, mystical, logical/rational, and scientific sources.

What are authoritarian sources of knowledge?

Knowledge derived from a person viewed as a source of wisdom, such as parents.

What are mystical sources of knowledge?

Knowledge from someone claiming insight into the true nature of the world, such as a prophet or religious figure.

What are logical/rational sources of knowledge?

Knowledge based on rules of logic and reasoning, sometimes referred to as common sense.

What are scientific sources of knowledge?

Knowledge generated through testable hypotheses and accepted research methods.

What are the five key features of modernist science?

Empirical, testable, theoretical, cumulative, and objective.

What does empirical mean?

Knowledge is gained through our senses and can be measured or counted.

What does testable mean?

Knowledge can be openly verified or refuted by others.

What does theoretical mean?

Research is used to identify causal relationships and construct theories rather than simply describe things.

What does cumulative mean?

Scientific knowledge builds on previous research and creates an ever-growing body of knowledge.

What does objective mean?

Researchers attempt to remove personal prejudices, political views and opinions from their research.

How does positivism view sociology?

It views sociology as a science that should model itself on the natural sciences.

What do positivists aim to discover?

General laws, relationships and cause-and-effect relationships in the social world.

Which major sociologists believed sociology could be a science?

Parsons and Marx.

How do positivists justify sociology as a science?

They collect empirical data, build theories, seek objectivity, make findings testable and build on previous research.

What is Karl Popper's concept of falsification?

The idea that science should attempt to disprove or refute hypotheses rather than simply prove them.

What does falsification involve?

Searching for evidence that could show a theory or hypothesis to be false.

What is Popper's example of falsification?

The statement "all swans are white" can be falsified by finding one black swan.

Can science ever discover absolute truth according to Popper?

No. A theory becomes more credible the longer it survives attempts at falsification, but it can never be proven absolutely true.

What does Popper believe sociology must do to be a science?

It must produce testable and falsifiable hypotheses.

Why did Popper reject aspects of Marxism?

Concepts such as false consciousness are difficult or impossible to falsify.

How does Popper's approach differ from positivism?

Positivism uses induction: examining data and then creating a theory. Popper favours deduction: starting with a theory and testing it against evidence.

What is induction?

Starting with observations/data and developing a theory from them.

What is deduction?

Starting with a theory or hypothesis and testing it against evidence.

What happens if a theory survives falsification?

It has not been disproved yet and becomes more credible, but it is not proven absolutely true.

What is a criticism of Popper?

Scientists often defend theories through verification rather than attempting to refute them, meaning Popper's description of science may not reflect how scientists actually work.

Why is prediction difficult in sociology?

Human behaviour cannot always be predicted because people are unique and may respond differently in similar circumstances.

Why is artificiality a problem for sociology as a science?

Sociologists want to study people in their normal environment, but controlled laboratory experiments can create artificial behaviour and findings.

What are the ethical problems with studying humans scientifically?

People have thoughts and feelings and may object to being treated like scientific experiments or being studied under laboratory conditions.

What is the Hawthorne effect?

People may behave differently when they know they are being observed.

What is validity?

How accurately research reflects the reality it is intended to study.

Why can scientific research have problems with validity when studying humans?

People may lie, give inaccurate information, or provide information they believe is true when it is not.

Why do interpretivists argue sociology is different from the natural sciences?

Humans create and interpret meanings rather than simply responding to external stimuli.

Why can sociologists' values affect their research?

Sociologists are part of the social world they study, so they cannot completely separate themselves from their own values and experiences.

What do interpretivists believe is the purpose of sociology?

To understand the meanings people construct and attach to their actions and interactions.

What is verstehen?

A term associated with Max Weber meaning understanding social behaviour by seeing the world from the perspective of those being studied.

What does verstehen involve?

Empathy and attempting to understand what it feels like to be another person.

Why do interpretivists accept subjective explanations?

Different researchers may interpret the same social event in different ways, so there may not be one single explanation.

What do postmodernists argue about natural science?

They reject the idea that science provides an absolute or superior version of truth.

Why do postmodernists reject science as the monopoly of truth?

They argue scientific knowledge is another perspective and that claims to objective truth can become a form of domination by those with power.

Who was Thomas Kuhn?

A philosopher of science who challenged the idea that science develops through continuous hypothesis testing.

What is a paradigm according to Kuhn?

A shared body of knowledge, methods and theories that scientists accept as true and use to guide scientific research.

What is normal science?

Scientific research carried out within the boundaries of an existing paradigm, mainly involving puzzle-solving rather than challenging fundamental assumptions.

What is puzzle-solving?

Scientists investigate problems using the theories, methods and assumptions accepted by the existing paradigm.

Why is normal science not completely objective according to Kuhn?

Scientists generally work within an accepted paradigm rather than constantly challenging its fundamental assumptions.

What is an anomaly?

An unexpected finding that the existing paradigm cannot adequately explain.

What can an anomaly lead to?

If it seriously challenges the existing paradigm, it can contribute to a scientific revolution.

What is a scientific revolution?

A major change in which an old paradigm is replaced by a new paradigm.

Why might scientists resist changes to a paradigm?

They may want to maintain their authority, professional position and the existing status quo.

How does Kuhn challenge the idea of objective scientific truth?

What is considered true within one paradigm may become considered untrue after a new paradigm is established.

Does sociology have a single paradigm?

No. Sociology contains different perspectives, such as functionalism, Marxism and feminism, as well as different methodologies.

Why does sociology not have normal science in the same way as the natural sciences?

There is no single paradigm shared by all sociologists.

What does methodological difference mean in sociology?

Sociologists use different approaches and methods, such as positivist and interpretivist approaches.

What is the debate over whether sociology is paradigm or pre-paradigmatic?

Some argue sociology has moved beyond a functionalist paradigm, while others argue sociology has never established a single paradigm.

What is the debate about whether sociology should achieve paradigmatic status?

Some argue sociology should develop a shared paradigm, while others value having multiple perspectives and methods.