Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Terms

Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution was a period in the 16th and 17th centuries when European thought shifted from relying on ancient authority and religious texts to emphasizing reason and empirical observation. Key discoveries by figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton established a mechanical, lawful view of the universe, forming the foundation for modern science.

Natural Philosophers

Natural philosophers were thinkers, primarily during the time leading up to and including the Scientific Revolution, who studied the universe to understand its nature, properties, and causes using reason and observation rather than purely religious or mythological explanations. Their broad inquiries into physics, astronomy, and biology laid the essential groundwork for the specialized fields of modern science that developed later.

Heliocentric theory

The heliocentric theory proposes that the Sun, not the Earth, is the center of the solar system, with Earth and the other planets orbiting it. This model, championed by Copernicus and later confirmed by Galileo, directly contradicted the long-held geocentric view and served as a foundational breakthrough of the Scientific Revolution.

Geocentric Theory

The geocentric theory was the ancient model of the universe, popularized by Aristotle and Ptolemy, which placed the Earth motionlessly at the center of the cosmos. This view held that the Sun, Moon, stars, and other planets revolved around the Earth in perfect, concentric crystalline spheres.

World-machine(Newtons Idea)

Isaac Newton's idea of the world machine describes the universe as a vast, well-ordered, and perfectly regulated system that operates according to universal, unchangeable mathematical laws, such as gravity and the laws of motion. This concept implies that after an initial creation (often attributed to God), the universe runs mechanically like a magnificent clock, predictable and understandable through human reason

Querelles des femmes

The querelles des femmes (French for "quarrels about women") was a centuries-long, recurring scholarly and literary debate about the nature and status of women in European society. This argument addressed women's capabilities, their moral worth, and their right to education and equality, influencing thought from the late Middle Ages through the Enlightenment

Universal Law of Gravitation

The universal law of gravitation, proposed by Isaac Newton, states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. This single mathematical law explained not only why objects fall to Earth but also why the planets remain in orbit around the Sun, proving that the same physical forces govern both terrestrial and celestial motion.

Rationalism

Rationalism is a philosophical viewpoint asserting that reason, not sensory experience, is the primary source of knowledge and the ultimate test of truth. Figures like René Descartes emphasized that knowledge is best obtained through logical deduction and innate ideas, arguing that true understanding is achieved through the intellect.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach to inquiry that involves formulating testable hypotheses based on observation and existing knowledge, and then rigorously testing those hypotheses through controlled experimentation and data collection. Its goal is to derive reliable, verifiable, and empirical knowledge, forming the core process of modern scientific investigation

Empiricism

Empiricism is a philosophical belief that states sensory experience is the primary source of knowledge, arguing that ideas are not innate but are instead derived from what we observe and perceive in the world. It advocates for knowledge acquisition through rigorous observation, experimentation, and data collection, making it foundational to the scientific method.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is a form of logical inference that starts with general principles or premises considered true and moves to a specific, logically certain conclusion. For example, if all men are mortal, and Socrates is a man, then one can logically deduce that Socrates is mortal.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a method of logical inference where one makes broad generalizations based on the observation of specific instances or events. It starts with evidence (like experimental data) to form a likely hypothesis or theory, though the conclusion is probable rather than guaranteed to be true.

English Royal Society

The English Royal Society, formally the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, was founded in 1660 as a prominent scientific academy dedicated to the promotion of experimental science. It served as a central hub for sharing and validating new discoveries and ideas, publishing its findings in the Philosophical Transactions, which helped institutionalize the scientific method in Britain.

French Royal Academy of Sciences

The French Royal Academy of Sciences (Académie Royale des Sciences), founded in 1666 under King Louis XIV, was a state-sponsored organization dedicated to promoting and supporting French scientific research and discovery. Like its English counterpart, it provided institutional validation and financial support for scientific endeavors, helping to centralize scientific activity and solidify France's role as a major scientific power.

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement where thinkers (philosophes) applied the principles of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of human society, including politics, economics, and religion. This movement championed ideals like individual liberty, natural rights, religious tolerance, and limited government, profoundly influencing major political revolutions in the Americas and France

Skepticism

Skepticism is the philosophical attitude that fundamentally questions the possibility of achieving certainty in knowledge, often emphasizing the limitations of human reason and sensory perception. It encourages constant critical inquiry and doubt toward accepted facts, beliefs, or established authority, demanding empirical evidence and logical justification before acceptance.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is the principle that a person's beliefs, values, and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture, rather than being judged against the criteria of another. It asserts that there are no universal moral truths or standards, and therefore, no culture's practices are inherently superior or inferior to another's.

Philosophes

The philosophes were the leading public intellectuals of the 18th-century Enlightenment, primarily based in France, who applied the methods of reason and science to critique existing political, social, and religious institutions. They championed ideals such as liberty, tolerance, and reform, actively working to spread their ideas and educate the public across Europe.

Cosmopolitan

Cosmopolitan refers to an intellectual or cultural ideal where individuals view themselves as citizens of the world rather than limiting their identity to a particular local community, state, or nation. During the Enlightenment, this mindset encouraged philosophes to share ideas across European borders and embrace different cultures, fostering a sense of universal human community and shared values.

Separation of Powers

The separation of powers is a core principle of governance, championed by thinkers like Montesquieu, that divides the state's responsibilities into three distinct branches: the legislative (making laws), the executive (implementing laws), and the judicial (interpreting laws). This structural division ensures that no single person or group can concentrate all authority, thereby preventing tyranny and protecting liberty through a system of checks and balances.

Deism

Deism is an Enlightenment-era religious philosophy that accepts the existence of a God, often referred to as a "Great Clockmaker," who created the universe and set it in motion according to natural, rational laws. This creator is not believed to intervene in the world or communicate with humanity through miracles or revelations; instead, knowledge of God is gained solely through reason and the observation of nature.

Physiocrats

The Physiocrats were 18th-century French Enlightenment economists who believed that the true source of wealth was solely land and agricultural production. They famously advocated for a doctrine of laissez-faire (let people do as they choose) and the elimination of mercantilist regulations, arguing that the economy should be governed by natural laws.

Laissez-faire

Laissez-faire is an economic doctrine, central to the ideas of the Physiocrats and Adam Smith, advocating that the government should not intervene in the economy, allowing markets to operate freely. This "hands-off" approach holds that the best economic outcomes are achieved when individuals are permitted to pursue their self-interest without regulation or protectionist measures.

Economic Liberalism

Economic liberalism is an ideology advocating for minimal government interference in the economy, prioritizing individual economic freedoms and reliance on free markets. Key principles include private property, free competition, and laissez-faire policies, driven by the belief that individual self-interest ultimately maximizes overall wealth and societal benefit.

Romanticism

Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing emotion, imagination, and individualism as reactions against the Enlightenment's rigid focus on cold reason and classical order. It championed the beauty of nature, the value of the subjective experience, and the glory of the past, often celebrating the common man and the passionate heroic figure.

Feminism

Feminism is a series of social and political movements and ideologies aimed at establishing, defining, and achieving equal political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. It fundamentally seeks to identify, challenge, and overturn patriarchal systems and gender inequality to promote women's interests and rights globally

Salons

Salons were informal, regular gatherings hosted primarily by wealthy, influential women (salonnières) in their private homes, especially in 18th-century Paris. These intellectual social events served as crucial venues for Enlightenment philosophes to discuss and debate new ideas, read their works, and network, helping to spread rationalist thought across elite European society

Rococo

Rococo was an ornate and decorative style of art and architecture that flourished in 18th-century Europe, especially France, characterized by its lightness, elegance, and focus on curves, natural forms (like shells and flowers), and playful themes. It often served as interior decoration for aristocratic homes, featuring asymmetrical design, pastel colors, and themes of love, fantasy, and leisure, contrasting with the heavier formality of the earlier Baroque style.

Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism was an artistic movement that emerged in the mid-18th century, drawing inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity, particularly Ancient Greece and Rome. It reacted against the frivolous ornamentation of the Rococo style by emphasizing order, logic, austerity, and moral seriousness, often using themes of civic virtue and patriotism.

Jacques Louis David

Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825) was the most prominent and influential painter of the Neoclassical movement in France, known for works that emphasized classical subject matter, precision, and austere moral clarity (e.g., The Oath of the Horatii). He became the artistic director of the French Revolution and later served as Napoleon Bonaparte's court painter, shifting his focus to propaganda and grand imperial portraits.

Johann Sebastian Bach

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750) was a German composer and musician of the late Baroque period whose prolific and complex works elevated nearly every contemporary musical form, particularly through his mastery of counterpointand fugue. His compositions, including the Brandenburg Concertos and The Well-Tempered Clavier, are considered the pinnacle of Baroque music and form the foundation of Western musical tradition.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756–1791) was an Austrian composer of the Classical era, widely regarded as one of the greatest musical geniuses in Western history, known for his prodigious talent and mastery of nearly every musical genre. Despite dying young, his immense body of work—including operas (The Marriage of Figaro), symphonies, and concertos—is celebrated for its melodic beauty, emotional depth, and structural perfection.

George Fredrick Handel

George Frideric Handel (1685–1759) was a German-born, later naturalized British, composer of the late Baroque era, most famous for his large-scale public works, especially his English oratorios and operas. His masterpiece, Messiah, remains one of the best-known works in Western music, showcasing his dramatic sense and brilliant use of vocal and instrumental forces.

Pietism

Pietism was a Protestant religious movement that emerged in 17th-century Germany, emphasizing personal religious experience and devotion over rigid theological dogma and church rituals. It focused on individual holiness, charity, and ethical living, acting as a spiritual revival that countered the perceived intellectualism of established Protestant churches.

John Wesley and Methodism

John Wesley (1703–1791) was an Anglican clergyman who founded Methodism, a Protestant revival movement characterized by its emphasis on personal conversion, disciplined religious practices, and practical charity. Methodism distinguished itself by spreading the Gospel directly to the working poor through powerful outdoor preaching, resulting in one of the most successful evangelical movements in history.