mgmt final definitions

psychological contracts

The contract is a set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers, and what their employers owe them.

Viewing employment as an alliance is much more likely to produce a mutually beneficial and satisfying relationship and a high-performing, successful organization.

effective managers want people to

• join the organization

• remain in the organization

• come to work regularly

• attend to work activities

• exhibit good citizenship

motivation

•Forces that energize, direct, and sustain a person’s efforts.

•Reject the common notion that loyalty is dead and accept the challenge of creating an environment that will attract and energize people so that they commit to the organization.

smart goals

Specific

Measurable

Achievable

Results-based

Time-specific

goal-setting theory

•A motivation theory stating that people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their thoughts and behaviors toward a particular end.

stretch goals

•Targets that are particularly demanding, sometimes even thought to be impossible.

Limitations of Goal Setting

•People lack relevant ability and knowledge.

•Goals are designed to maximize individual performance hurt group performance.

•They can generate manipulative game-playing and unethical behavior.

• If people lack relevant ability and knowledge, a better course might be simply to urge them to do their best

•Or set a goal to learn rather than a goal to achieve a specific performance level.

law of effect

•Formulated by Edward Thorndike in 1911, stating that behavior followed by positive consequences will likely be repeated.

Four potential consequences of behavior:

1.Positive reinforcement.

2.Negative reinforcement.

3.Punishment.

4.Extinction.

positive reinforcement

Applying consequences that increase the likelihood that a person will repeat the behavior that led to it.

negative reinforcement

Removing or withholding an undesirable consequence

punishment

Administering an aversive consequence.

extinction

Withdrawing or failing to provide a reinforcing consequence.

(Mis)Managing Rewards and Punishments

Reward system should support the firm’s strategy

Innovative managers use nonmonetary rewards:

•Intellectual challenge.

•Meaningful responsibilities.

•Autonomy.

•Recognition.

•Greater influence over decisions.

Managing Mistakes

Punishment is appropriate when people violate laws, ethical standards, safety rules.

Overuse of punishment creates a climate of fear e.g. when poor performance isn’t the person’s fault or when managers take out their frustrations on the wrong people

expectancy

is people’s perceived likelihood that their efforts will enable them to attain their performance goals.

Instrumentality

is the perceived likelihood that performance will be followed by a particular outcome.

valence

the value the person places on the outcome.

• can be positive or negative.

3 crucial implications of expectancy theory

1. Increase expectancies.

2. Identify possible valence outcomes.

3. Make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes.

expectancy theory

helps the manager zero in on key leverage points for influencing motivation.

maslow’s need hierarchy

is commonly understood as operating from the bottom to the top of a pyramid, because people need to satisfy the lower needs before they try to satisfy the higher needs

Alderfer’s E R G Theory

A human needs theory suggests that people have three basic sets of needs that can operate simultaneously

1. Existence.

2. Relatedness.

3. Growth.

McClelland’s needs

basic needs that motivate people

• Need for achievement: Characterized by a strong orientation toward accomplishment and an obsession with success and goal attainment.

• Need for affiliation: Reflects a strong desire to be liked by other people.

• Need for power: A desire to influence or control other people.

need for achievement

McClelland’s needs

• Characterized by a strong orientation toward accomplishment and an obsession with success and goal attainment.

need for affiliation

McClelland’s needs

• Reflects a strong desire to be liked by other people.

need for power

McClelland’s needs

• A desire to influence or control other people.

extrinsic reward

Reward given to a person by the boss, the company, or some other person.

intrinsic reward

Reward a worker derives directly from performing the job itself.

job rotation

Changing from one task to another to alleviate boredom.

job enlargement

Giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate boredom.

job enrichment

Changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding, motivating, and satisfying.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Motivators:

• Factors that make a job more motivating, such as additional job responsibilities, opportunities for personal growth and recognition, and feelings of achievement.

Hygiene factors:

• Characteristics of the workplace, such as company policies, working conditions, pay, and supervision, that can make people dissatisfied.

motivators

two-factor theory

• Factors that make a job more motivating, such as additional job responsibilities, opportunities for personal growth and recognition, and feelings of achievement.

hygiene factors

two factor theory

• Characteristics of the workplace, such as company policies, working conditions, pay, and supervision, that can make people dissatisfied.

empowerment

Sharing power with employees, enhancing their confidence in their ability to perform their jobs and their belief that they are contributors to the organization.

engagement

When employees invest their physical, mental, and emotional energy into performing their jobs, including working hard and producing, taking initiative, and contributing additional citizenship behaviors.

equity theory

states that people compare the ratio of their own outcomes to inputs against the outcome-to-input ratio of some comparison person.

• If the ratios are equivalent, people believe the relationship is equitable, or fair. Equity causes people to be satisfied with their treatment. But the person who believes their ratio is lower than another’s will feel inequitably treated. Inequity causes dissatisfaction and leads to an attempt to restore balance to the relationship.

procedural justice

Using fair process in decision making and making sure others know that the process was as fair as possible

Perceptions of justices may be increased by:

•Stating decision criteria in advance.

•Making sure appropriate people are viewed as trustworthy.

•Making sure the process is open and visible.

•Allowing for participation and appeal.

the impact of worker dissatisfaction

• Higher turnover.

• Higher absenteeism.

• Less good citizenship.

• More grievances and lawsuits.

• Strikes.

• Stealing, sabotage, and vandalism.

• Poorer mental and physical health.

• More injuries.

• Poor customer service.

• Lower productivity and profits.

Using Technology to Motivate

Companies are learning that technology can help them motivate employees.

Quality of work life (Q W L) programs

create a workplace that enhances employee well-being.

• The general goal of QWL programs is to satisfy the full range of employee needs

Q W L Program Categories

1.Adequate and fair compensation.

2.A safe and healthy environment.

3.Jobs that develop human capacities.

4.A chance for personal growth and security.

5.An environment that fosters personal identity, freedom from prejudice, a sense of community, and upward mobility.

6.Constitutionalism, or the rights of personal privacy, dissent, and due process.

7.A work role that minimizes infringement on personal leisure and family needs.

8.Socially responsible organizational actions.

work team

Teams that make or do things like manufacture, assemble, sell, or provide service.

project and development team

teams that work on long-term projects, but disband once the work is completed.

parallel team

Teams that operate separately from the regular work structure and are temporary.

management team

Teams that coordinate and provide direction to the subunits under their jurisdiction and integrate work among subunits.

transnational team

Teams that differ from other work teams by being multicultural and by often being geographically dispersed, being psychologically distant, and working on highly complex projects having considerable impact on company objectives

virtual team

Teams that are physically dispersed and communicate electronically more than face-to-face.

teaming team

A strategy of teamwork on the fly, creating many temporary, changing teams.

Best Practices of Virtual Team Leaders

1.Establish and maintain trust through the use of communication technology.

2.Ensure diversity in the team is understood, appreciated, and leveraged.

3.Manage virtual work cycle and meetings.

4.Monitor team progress through the use of technology.

5.Enhance external visibility of the team and its members.

6.Ensure individuals benefit from participating in virtual teams.

autonomous work groups

• Autonomous work groups in which workers are trained to do all or most of the jobs in a unit, have no immediate supervisor, and make decisions previously made by frontline supervisors

• Groups that control decisions about and execution of a complete range of tasks.

self-designing teams

• Have responsibilities of autonomous work groups, plus control over hiring, firing, and deciding what tasks members perform.

should group and team be used iterchangeably…

Group and team should not be used interchangeably.

working group

collection of people who work in the same area or have been drawn together to undertake a task but do not necessarily come together as a unit and achieve significant performance improvements.

team

formed of people with complementary skills who trust one another and are committed to a common purpose, common performance goals, and a common approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable.

stages of team development

• forming

• storming

• norming

• performing

forming

Group members attempt to lay the ground rules for what types of behavior are acceptable.

storming

Hostilities and conflict arise, and people jockey for positions of power and status.

norming

Group members agree on their shared goals, and norms and closer relationships develop.

performing

The group channels its energies into performing its tasks.

Practices that are particularly helpful in the team context include:

Emphasizing the team’s purpose

• Why we exists, what’s at stake, and what its shared values are.

Building psychological safety.

• Making clear that people need to and can freely speak up, be honest, disagree, offer ideas, raise issues, share their knowledge, and ask questions;

Embracing failure

• Understanding that mistakes are inevitable, errors should be acknowledged, and learning as we go is a way to create new knowledge while we execute;

Putting conflict to work.

• explaining how we arrive at our views, expressing interest in one another’s thinking and analyses, and attempting fully to understand and capitalize on others’ diverse perspectives.

team effectiveness is defined by (3)

• team productivity

• member satisfaction

• member commitment

team productivity

The output of the team meets or exceeds the standards of quantity and quality expected by the customers, inside and outside the organization, who receive the team’s goods or services.

member satisfaction

Team members realize satisfaction of their personal needs.

member commitment

team members remain committed to working together again; that is, the group doesn’t burn out and disintegrate after a grueling project. Looking back, the members are glad they were involved. In other words, effective teams remain viable and have good prospects to work well together in the future.

social loafing

Working less and being less productive when in a group.

Social facilitation effect:

Working harder when in a group than when working alone.

norms

Shared beliefs about how people should think and behave.

roles

Different sets of expectations for how different individuals should behave

• Task specialist role.

• Team maintenance role.

cohesiveness

how attractive the team is to its members, how motivated members are to remain in the team, and the degree to which team members influence one another. In general, it refers to how tightly knit the team is.

high performance norms, low cohesiveness

moderate goal attainment and task performance

low performance norms, high cohesiveness

high goal attainment and low task management

high performance norms, high cohesiveness

high goal attainment and task performance

low performance norms, low cohesiveness

poor goal attainment and task performance

Building Cohesiveness and High-Performance Norms

1.Recruit members with similar attitudes, values, and backgrounds.

2.Maintain high entrance and socialization standards.

3.Foster and practice empathy.

4.Keep the team small.

5.Help the team succeed and publicize its successes.

6.Be a participative leader.

7.Present a challenge from outside the team.

8.Tie rewards to team performance.

workflow relationships

emerge as materials are passed from one group to another.

service relationships

when top management centralizes an activity to which a large number of other units must gain access.

advisory relationships

are created when teams with problems call on centralized sources of expert knowledge

audit relationships

develop when people not directly in the chain of command evaluate the methods and performances of other teams.

stabilization relationships

involve auditing before the fact.

liasion relationships

involve intermediaries between teams.

avoidance

A reaction to conflict that involves ignoring the problem by doing nothing at all or deemphasizing the disagreement.

accommodation

A style of dealing with conflict involving cooperation on behalf of the other party but not being assertive about one’s own interests.

compromise

A style of dealing with conflict involving moderate attention to both parties’ concerns.

competing

A style of dealing with conflict involving strong focus on one’s own goals and little or no concern for the other person’s goals.

Collaboration

A style of dealing with conflict emphasizing both cooperation and assertiveness to maximize both parties’ satisfaction.

superordinate goals

higher-level organizational goals toward which everyone should be striving and that ultimately need to take precedence over personal or unit preferences

virtual and e-conflict

When teams are geographically dispersed, as is often the case for virtual teams, team members tend to experience more conflict and less trust.

To limit issues:

• Monitor and reduce or eliminate problems as soon as possible.

• When problems arise, express willingness to cooperate, and then actually be cooperative.

mediator

A third party who intervenes to help others manage their conflict.

Four-stage model of dispute resolution:

1. Investigate:

   1. by interviewing the disputants and others and gathering more information.

2. Review findings:

   1. determine how best to resolve the dispute, often in conjunction with the disputants’ bosses

3. Apply solutions:

   1. explaining their opinions and the reasoning and advise or train the disputants to avoid future incidents

4. Follow-up:

   1. making sure everyone understands the solution, documenting the conflict and the resolution, and monitoring the results

communication

is the transmission of information and meaning from one party to another through the use of shared symbols

one way communication

•A process in which information flows in only one direction—from the sender to the receiver, with no feedback loop.

two way communication

•A process in which information flows in two directions—the receiver provides feedback, and the sender is receptive to the feedback.

perception

•The process of receiving and interpreting information.

filtering

•The process of withholding, ignoring, or distorting information.

verbal communication

•Includes face-to-face discussion, phone conversations, meetings, and formal presentations and speeches

written communication

•Includes email, memos, letters, reports, spreadsheets, product brochures, and other documents

advantages of verbal communications

•Questions can be asked and answered.

•Feedback is immediate and direct.

•Receiver senses sender’s sincerity.

•Oral communication is more persuasive.

disadvantages of verbal communications

•Can lead to spontaneous, ill-considered statements (and regret).

•There is no permanent record of it