International organisations

IOs as independent actors

IOs are independent actors with authority... not reducible to the interests of their member states." — Barnett & Finnemore (2004)

IOs as instruments of state power

"International organisations merely reflect the interests of powerful states who impose their will on others." — Mearsheimer (2001)

IO autonomy in policy imposition

"The World Bank often imposes policy reforms without meaningful input from the countries affected." — Weaver (2007)

Irrationality of rationalisation

"IOs pursue procedure over purpose, even when outcomes worsen." — Barnett & Finnemore (2004)

IMF and the Asian Financial Crisis

The IMF treated the Asian crisis like past crises, deepening the economic collapse.

Gruber on coercive cooperation

"Powerful states define the agenda… weaker states often comply out of necessity." — Lecture summary of Gruber

Wendt on constructivism

Anarchy is what states make of it." — Wendt (1992)

UNSC and strategic restraint

"UNSC approval is a credible mechanism to signal strategic restraint and avoid backlash." Lecture

Hurd on IO effectiveness

"Lack of coercive enforcement doesn't mean IOs are ineffective – legitimacy matters." — Hurd 2017

Keohane on cooperation

"IOs create shared expectations and reduce uncertainty, enabling cooperation under anarchy." — Keohane & Martin (1995)

UNSC legitimacy and use of force

Even powerful states seek UNSC approval to gain legitimacy for use of force." — Hurd (lecture)

Strategic restraint through IOs

"Strategic restraint through IOs helps powerful states gain international buy-in." (Ikenberry (via lecture)

Ruggie on regime legitimacy

"Regimes embody shared understandings fundamental to maintaining legitimacy." — Ruggie (1982)

Finnemore & Sikkink on norms

"Norms are standards of appropriate behaviour for actors with a given identity." — Finnemore & Sikkink (1998)

Escobar on development and control

"Development was a means of managing and controlling the Third World." — Escobar (1995)

Barnett & Duvall on defining power

“Power is the production, in and through social relations, of effects that shape the capacities of actors to determine their circumstances and fate.” (Barnett & Duvall, 2005)

Finnemore on World Bank and norms

“It was the Bank... that 'sold' poverty alleviation as an essential component of development policy.” — Finnemore, 1996

Institutionalism and shadow of the future (Rationalist Theory)

“Institutions facilitate cooperation by lengthening the ‘shadow of the future’.”
Keohane & Martin, 1995

Legitimacy and norm-setting in the UN (UNGA / Symbolic Power)

“Within the UN, the UNGA was the key IO for states to legitimate their actions.” Claude, 1966

What does Mearsheimer argue about the power of international organisations?

“International organizations and international law merely reflect the interests of powerful states who impose their will on others.”(Mearsheimer, 2001)

What does Cooley & Ron critique about NGOs and IOs?

Powerful institutional imperatives can subvert IO and INGO efforts, prolong inappropriate aid projects, or promote destructive competition among well-meaning transnational actors.”
Cooley & Ron (2002)

How does Escobar critique Western development models?

The production of the Third World as an underdeveloped region served to legitimize interventions by international organizations and Western governments.” Escobar (1995)

What does Barnett & Finnemore argue about IO expertise and dysfunction?

These solutions were not, however, purely technical and value-neutral; they aimed to reconstitute these economies to conform with the market-dominated models that have become known as the Washington Consensus.” Barnett & Finnemore (2004)

How does Ruggie define the historical foundation of IOs?

The Bretton Woods institutions, such as the IMF and the World Bank, were established as instruments of embedded liberalism, tasked with ensuring global economic cooperation while allowing states to retain autonomy.”
Ruggie (1982)

How did India influence the UN’s human rights language?

“Indian delegate Hansa Mehta was instrumental in changing the UDHR from ‘all men are created equal’ to ‘all human beings,’ emphasising gender equality.”

WTO and the banana dispute

WTO ruled against EU trade preferences for ex-colonies in favour of the U.S., demonstrating dispute resolution effectiveness.

WHO and COVID-19

WHO declared COVID-19 a global emergency and coordinated COVAX access, showing normative authority in health governance.

: Voeten on the UNSC and Iraq

The U.S. sought UNSC approval for the 1991 Iraq war not for capacity but legitimacy (Voeten ,2005)

Zambia and IMF structural adjustment

Zambia’s 1980s IMF loan came with austerity and cuts to health and education — showing compliance through dependency.

WTO as institutionalised cooperation

“IOs create stable expectations by centralising collective activity.” — Abbott & Snidal (1998)

UNFCCC’s design to accommodate exit power

The Paris Agreement’s non-binding NDC structure reflected attempts to keep the U.S. and China inside the climate regime — Gruber logic.

: UN Peacekeeping failure in Rwanda

The UN’s limited mandate and premature withdrawal contributed to failure to prevent the Rwandan genocide 1994.