Social Psychology Final Exam Study Guide

What makes social psychology a hub discipline?

It acts as a central connector between various other fields of study.

Cultural perspective

Looks at how culture shapes human thought, emotion, and behavior.

Individualism vs Collectivism

Major distinction made between societies; individualism focuses on personal rights while collectivism emphasizes group goals.

Dynamical systems theory

A way of understanding how complex patterns emerge over time from the interaction of many small, interconnected parts.

Correlation

Establishing relationships between variables, measuring 2 or more characteristics in a large sample of people.

Causation

One variable produces a change in another variable.

Positive correlation

When one variable increases and the other also increases, or both decrease together.

Negative correlation

When one variable increases while the other decreases.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation or prediction based on limited evidence that serves as the starting point for investigation.

Independent variable

The variable manipulated or changed in a study to test its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed to see if it changes in response to the independent variable.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Ensures research is conducted to protect participants' rights, well-being, and privacy.

Informed consent

Participants must be made aware of the nature of research and agree to participate.

Big data

Used to find patterns in large samples, studying large-scale behaviors and making predictions.

Three dimensions of attitudes

Thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Belief perseverance

The tendency for people to maintain their beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence.

Thought-induced attitude polarization

Thinking about an issue leads to a strengthening of one's initial attitude.

Need for closure

Desire to reach a firm conclusion and avoid uncertainty.

Universal values

Harm/care, fairness/reciprocity, in-group/loyalty, authority/respect, purity/sanctity.

Interdependent cultures

Characterized by obligation to others and reliance on the group.

Independent cultures

Characterized by individual rights and self-sufficiency.

Misattribution of arousal theory

People can mistake the cause of their physiological arousal for different feelings.

Placebo effect

Believing in a placebo pill increases tolerance to discomfort.

Six universal emotions

Anger, surprise, disgust, happiness/joy, fear, sadness.

Facial feedback hypothesis

Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

James-Lange theory of emotion

Body reacts first, and emotion follows based on physical changes.

Hedonic treadmill

The tendency to return to a stable level of happiness despite major life events.

Affective forecasting

Research shows people overestimate the intensity of emotions for intense states.

Self-recognition

Ability to recognize oneself as an individual, separate from others.

Self-awareness

Conscious recognition and reflection of one's own thoughts, emotions, and identity.

Species showing self-awareness

Orangutans, dolphins, Asian elephants, some birds.

Self-handicapping

Creating obstacles to have an external excuse for failure.

Sociometer hypothesis

Self-esteem reflects how valued we are by others.

Contingencies of self-worth

Self-esteem influenced by specific life domains where individuals base their worth.

Self-esteem

Global evaluation of the self.

Self-concept clarity

How certain an individual is about their self-evaluations.

Cultural impact on self-esteem

Culture shapes self-perception through its values and norms.

Self-conscious emotions

Emotions linked to self-reflection and social norms.

Ego-depletion

Self-control is a limited resource that depletes after use.

Intrinsic motivation

Motivation driven by enjoyment or interest in a task.

Over-justification effect

External rewards diminish intrinsic motivation for activities.

Promotion orientation

Focus on growth and positive outcomes.

Prevention orientation

Focus on safety and avoiding negative outcomes.

Representativeness heuristic

Judgments based on how much something resembles a typical case.

Actor-observer difference

Different attributions for one's own behavior compared to others' behavior.

Halo effect

Generalized evaluations based on a central trait.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for and interpret information that confirms existing beliefs.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Expectation leads to behaviors that cause the expectation to be met.

Self-presentation

Strategies used to convey desired impressions to others.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Motivation based on fulfilling hierarchical needs.

Loneliness

Feeling that social relationships are less meaningful than desired.

Consequences of loneliness

Social anxiety, depression, and suicidality.

Nonverbal behavior

Communicates more information than verbal behavior.

Similarity attraction effect

People tend to feel attracted to those who are similar to them.

Social exchange theory

Dynamics of close relationships are analyzed in terms of rewards and costs.

Aggression

Behavior intended to cause harm or discomfort.

Altruism

Selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Pluralistic ignorance

Misconceptions about what others think or feel leading to inaction.

Diffusion of responsibility

Presence of others reduces the likelihood of helping behavior.

Group polarization

Group discussion enhances or exaggerates preexisting attitudes.

Groupthink

Faulty group decision-making due to desire for harmony.

Social loafing

Individuals exert less effort in a group than on their own.

Deindividuation

Reduced self-awareness leading to greater conformity to group norms.

Out-group homogeneity

Seeing members of other groups as the same.

In-group bias

Favoring members of one's own group over others.

Prejudice

Negative attitudes based solely on group membership.

Stereotypes

Beliefs about characteristics of group members.

Discrimination

Unfair treatment based on group membership.

Implicit vs Explicit prejudice

Implicit: Unconscious beliefs. Explicit: Conscious beliefs.

Robber's Cave Study

Demonstrated how intergroup conflict arises from competition for resources.

Tit-for-tat strategy

Reciprocal approach to conflict resolution.

Tragedy of the Commons

Overuse of shared resources due to individual self-interest.

Just world belief

Belief that people get what they deserve.

Material well-being's impact on happiness

Significantly influences happiness but diminishes once basic needs are met.

Upward social comparison

Comparing oneself to those perceived as better off, often leading to negative feelings.

Downward social comparison

Comparing oneself to those perceived as worse off, often boosting self-esteem.

Effects of upward & downward social comparison

Upward: inspiration vs. envy. Downward: self-esteem boost vs. complacency.

Own-race bias

Tendency to better recognize faces of one's own racial or ethnic group.

Stanford Prison Experiment

Study highlighting situational influences on behavior and morality.