AP BIOLOGY -- MASTER FLASHCARDS

Properties of water

adhesion (sticks to other things), cohesion (sticks to itself, polar, high specific heat, less dense as a solid, surface tension,

What part of a water molecule is negatively charged

Oxygen

What part of a water molecule is positively charged

Hydrogen

What is the structure of an amino acid? (its functional groups)

Amino group (NHH), R group (differs), carboxyl group (COOH)

How an amino acid interacts with other amino acids is dependent on….

If it is hydrophilic/polar, hydrophobic/nonpolar, or special/charged

Elements of a carbohydrate

CHO (Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)

Elements of a protein

CHON (Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen) + sometimes Sulfur in the R group

Elements of a nucleic acid

CHONP

Elements of a lipid

CHO

What are the functions of lipids in living organisms?

Energy storage, cell membranes, messenger molecules (hormones (steroids))

How does the R group affect the folding of a protein?

If the R group is polar, it will be on the outside of the folded protein. If the R group is nonpolar, it will be on the inside of the folded protein.

Dehydration synthesis

Water is REMOVED when two substances are synthesized

Hydrolysis

Water is ADDED to separate two substances (breaks the bond)

Bond between carbohydrates

Glycosidic, between monosaccharides

Bond between amino acids (protein monomers)

Peptide bond, between the carbon in the carboxyl group and the nitrogen in the amino group

Bond between nucleic acid monomers

Phosphodiester between the phosphates, hydrogen between nucleotides

How does an enzyme affect the rate of biological processes?

Speeds it up

What is the difference between a saturated and unsaturated fatty acid?

Unsaturated fatty acid has a bend in one of the chains and has at least 1 double bond.

How does the level of saturation affect the function of the lipid?

Saturated FA are solid at room temperature (butter), unsaturated are liquid (oil)

What kind of bonds are found in each level of folding of a protein?

Primary: Covalent/peptide

Secondary: Hydrogen

Tertiary: Many specific kinds of bonds

Quaternary: Hydrogen

How many bonds are found between adenine and thymine?

2 hydrogen bonds

How many bonds are found between guanine and cytosine?

3 hydrogen bonds

Purines

Adenine and guanine — DOUBLE ring

Pyrimidines

Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil — SINGLE ring

Osmosis

The net movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of HIGH water concentration to LOW water concentration

Hypertonic

If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will flow OUT of the cell. If a solute concentration is higher outside the cell than inside the cell, the solution is hypertonic.

Hypotonic

If a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water will flow INTO the cell because the solute concentration is higher INSIDE the cell than it is out of the cell.

Isotonic

No net flow of water into/out of the cell in an isotonic solution

Structure of a ribosome

rRNA and proteins

Function of a ribosome

Translation of mRNA to protein

Rough ER

Contains ribosomes, protein production

More surface area = more ribosomes = more efficient protein production

Smooth ER

Carbohydrate and lipid synthesis, detoxification

Golgi Bodies/Apparatus/Complex

Transports, sorts, and modifies proteins/lipids

Contains Golgi vesicles which transport products

Mitochondria

ATP production - folded inner matrix and double membrane

*Introduced to eukaryotic cells through endosymbiosis - evidence of how eukaryotic cells originated from prokaryotic cells

*All mitochondrial DNA is inherited from the mother

*Matrix folds increase surface area for ATP production

Lysosome

Has a different PH inside of it, contains enzymes, controls apoptosis or programmed cell death

Vacuole

Holds materials and waste — more important in plant cells because it provides turgor pressure which gives plants structure

*Contractile vacuole: pumps water out of the cell

*Food vacuole: ingests food through phagocytosis

Chloroplast

Site of photosynthesis, consists of stroma and thylakoid stacks (grana), THREE membranes

*Also supports endosymbiosis theory of eukaryotic origin

Where do the light dependent (ETC) and independent (calvin cycle) reactions take place?

Light dependent: Thylakoid

Light independent: Stroma

Where does the citric acid cycle take place?

Mitochondrial matrix

Where does the cellular respiration ETC take place?

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Where is ATP synthesized in PHOTOSYNTHESIS?

Chloroplast (thylakoid membrane)

How does surface area to volume ratio affect the size of the cell?

The larger the cell is, the more the SA to volume ratio decreases.

What type of surface area to volume ratio is most favorable?

HIGH surface area to volume ratio because this allows for more effective and efficient exchange of materials and heat

How can a cell increase surface area without increasing the volume?

By dividing into smaller sections

How do organisms obtain nutrients and eliminate waste?

Endocytosis, exocytosis, diffusion

What are the components of the cell membrane?

Phospholipid bilayer, transport proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol

Do enzymes affect the Gibbs Free Energy of a chemical reaction?

No. They lower the activation energy but not the amount of reactants/products that are formed.

What is Gibbs Free Energy?

The amount of energy in a system that is available to do work

What happens when a substrate binds to an enzyme?

The substrate is either synthesized with another substance or broken apart

Conditions that affect enzyme structure

PH, Temperature

What happens to the PH when the concentration of hydrogen ions increases?

Becomes more acidic

What happens to the PH when the concentration of hydrogen ions decreases?

Becomes more basic

What happens to enzymes when the PH increases?

Speed up until optimal PH, then denature

What happens to enzymes when PH decreases?

Slows down (depends on optimal PH)

A competitive inhibitor is

An inhibitor that binds to the active site

How can researchers overcome competitive inhibitors?

They can make something that binds to the inhibitor, preventing it from fitting in the allosteric site

What is an allosteric inhibitor?

An inhibitor that binds to an allosteric site which changes the shape of the active site

All enzyme inhibitors ___

Block the active site to slow down the chemical process

First law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted/transferred

Second law of thermodynamics

The entropy of the universe only increases

How is order (entropy) maintained in a system?

Chemical reactions transfer energy to make it more ordered

How are cellular processes powered

ATP

Endergonic reaction

Energy ENTERS the reaction, +DeltaG to products

• Requires energy to occur

• Anabolic

• Non--spontaneous

Exergonic reaction

Energy exits the reaction, —DeltaG to products

• Catabolic

• Spontaneous

What is energy coupling?

When energy from an exergonic reaction powers an endergonic reaction

What organism first evolved photosynthesis

Cyanobacteria

What/Where are the light dependent reactions?

Electron transport chain, occurs in the grana (stacks of thylakoids)

What/Where are the light independent reactions?

Calvin cycle, occurs in the stroma

Calvin cycle

Carbon Fixation, Reduction, Regeneration

What is reduced in the photosynthetic electron transport chain?

NADP+ to NADPH

How is ATP synthesized in the photosynthetic electron transport chain?

The electrons create a proton gradient that powers ATP synthase

Reduction

+electron, Increases energy of the compound that is reduced

Oxidation

Takes away an electron, releases energy

Redox reactions

Chemical processes like photosynthesis that consist of both oxidation and reduction taking place

What happens to the electrons after light is absorbed?

They become excited

What direction are the protons pumped during light dependent reactions to generate the photon gradient?

INTO the thylakoid

Photosynthetic electron transport chain

Consists of photosystem ll and photosystem l, produces oxygen by splitting water and ATP through chemiosmosis, also produces NADPH

Chemiosmosis

movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane to form a gradient

What is fermentation?

anaerobic respiration

Products of fermentation

Ethol Alcohol (yeast fermentation), Lactic acid (muscles)

Where are electron transport chains located in cells?

Membranes (cell membrane, mitochondrial membrane)

Oxidative phosphorylation

Electron Transport chain AND Chemiosmosis produce ATP

Photophosphorylation

Using light energy from photosynthesis to convert ADP into ATP

How does the proton concentration affect the PH?

Intermembrane space is more acidic

Glycolysis

Splitting glucose into pyruvate acid

Occurs in the cytoplasm

Starting materials of glycolysis

6 carbon glucose

Products of glycolysis

2 ATP, 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH

How are electrons transported to the electron transport chain?

NADH and FADH2

What are the starting materials of the Krebs cycle?

Acetyl-CoA, oxlacoacetate

Pyruvate oxidation

In aerobic respiration, Pyruvate is converted into acetyl-coA

What is the role of pyruvate oxidation in anaerobic respiration?

Pyruvate converts to lactate or ethanol

What is the function of ATP hydrolysis?

Releases energy

Message communicated by direct cell-to-cell contact

Juxtacrine (used by immune cells)

Message communicated during chemical signaling

Endocrine (Hormones)

How cells communicate over a short distance

Paracrine (neurotransmitters at synapses)

Example of endocrine signaling

Hormones traveling through the bloodstream

What process releases a chemical signal from a cell?

Exocytosis

Where are chemical signals synthesized and processed?

Synthesized: ER, Golgi
Processed: Golgi

What occurs during reception

Ligan binds to receptor on target cell

Where is the receptor for a steroid hormone?

Inside the cell