Philosophical Concepts: Ethics, Metaphysics, and Epistemology

Socrates

The philosopher who stated, 'The unexamined life is not worth living' and was executed for questioning authority and corrupting youth.

Plato's Allegory of the Cave

A metaphor where prisoners mistake shadows for reality, and one escapes to see the real world (Forms), symbolizing education, truth, and enlightenment.

The sun in Allegory of the Cave

Represents the ultimate truth, the Form of the Good.

Thought Experiment - Ship of Theseus

A philosophical question asking if a ship rebuilt plank by plank is still the same ship, challenging identity over time.

Socratic Method

A technique of asking guided questions to challenge assumptions and uncover contradictions to reach deeper truths.

First vs. Second Order Questions

First-order questions ask about the world (e.g., Is lying wrong?), while second-order questions ask about how/why we ask questions (e.g., What is morality?).

Voltaire's The Good Brahmin

A narrative illustrating that a wise man is unhappy due to understanding how little he knows, while an ignorant woman is content, raising the question of whether knowledge is worth the cost of unhappiness.

Human Nature

Explores whether humans naturally desire knowledge, are curious or indifferent, and whether they are altruistic (selfless) or egoistic (selfish).

Prisoner's Dilemma

A scenario where two prisoners can betray or stay silent, showing the conflict between self-interest and mutual cooperation, with the best group outcome being both silent.

Essence vs. Existence

Plato's view (Essence) suggests we have a fixed nature, while Existentialism (Existence) posits that we define ourselves through our actions.

Deductive Reasoning

A logical process from general to specific, where if premises are true and the argument is valid, the conclusion must be true.

Key Terms in Logic

Certainty: 100% truth; Validity: Proper logical form; Truth: Accurate premises; Soundness: Valid + true = sound argument.

Syllogism

A logical structure consisting of 2 premises and 1 conclusion, e.g., All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Validity Testing

An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises.

Subject, Predicate, Middle Term

Subject: Thing being talked about; Predicate: What is said about it; Middle Term: Links subject and predicate in syllogisms.

Aristotle's 3 Laws of Thought

1. Law of Non-Contradiction: A statement can't be true and false at the same time; 2. Law of the Excluded Middle: A statement is either true or false, no in-between; 3. Law of Identity: Everything is identical to itself (A = A).

Inductive Reasoning

A logical process from specific to general, leading to probable conclusions, not guaranteed.

Abductive Reasoning

A form of reasoning that infers the best explanation, commonly used in science and investigations.

Informal Fallacies

Logical errors in reasoning, such as strawman, ad hominem, and slippery slope.

Identifying Arguments

Premise: Statement supporting conclusion; Evidence: Facts used to justify premise; Conclusion: Main point being argued.

Pathos, Logos, Ethos

Pathos: Appeal to emotion; Logos: Appeal to logic/reason; Ethos: Appeal to credibility/character.

Descartes & Radical Doubt

Philosophical approach where Descartes doubts everything to find certain truth, concluding with 'I think, therefore I am.'

Theories of Reality

Materialism: Only physical things exist; Idealism: Reality is mental/spiritual; Dualism: Mind and body are separate.

Plato's Forms

Concepts that represent perfect, abstract ideals, where the physical world is a flawed reflection of these Forms.

Bundle Theory

No permanent self, just a bundle of experiences.

Project Theory

Self is created through choices.

Narrative Theory

Identity is formed through the story of our life.

Substance Theory

Self is a consistent, unchanging soul.

Memory continuity

Locke: Memory continuity = same person.

Rationality and self-consciousness

Dennett: Rationality, self-consciousness define a person.

Traits of personhood

Warren: Traits like reasoning, emotion, communication, self-awareness.

Social relationships and personhood

Baier: Personhood develops through social relationships.

Turing Test

If AI can act like a human, it might be considered a person.

Chinese Room

AI may simulate understanding, but doesn't actually understand.

Memory Theory

Locke: Same memories = same person.

Body Theory

Same body = same person (less accepted now).

Libertarianism

Total free will, not caused by past events.

Existentialist Free Will

Sartre: We choose freely and bear full responsibility.

Hard Determinism

All actions are caused; no free will.

Soft Determinism

Actions are caused but we can still be responsible.

Epistemology

Study of knowledge.

Empiricism

Knowledge from experience (Locke, Hume).

Rationalism

Knowledge from reason (Descartes, Plato).

A Priori

Known without experience (math, logic).

A Posteriori

Known through experience (science, observation).

Justified True Belief

Classic definition of knowledge: You know something if it's true, you believe it, you have justification.

Pragmatism

Truth is what works in practice.

Edification

Rorty: Knowledge reshapes us personally.

Deconstructionism

Derrida: All meaning is unstable and based on interpretation.

Normative Ethics

Study of how we ought to act (action, character, value).

Ring of Gyges

Invisible ring = power without consequence. Would you still act morally if no one could see you?

Ethical Absolutism

Some actions always right/wrong.

Universalism

Morals apply to all people.

Relativism

Morals based on personal opinion or social norms.

Objective Morals

Morals are universal truths.

Subjective Morals

Morality depends on opinion or context.

Egoism

Act in your own self-interest.

Altruism

Act for the good of others.

Utilitarianism

Greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Hedonism

Maximize pleasure, minimize pain.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

Act only on maxims you'd want to become universal law.

Divine Command Theory

Morality is based on God's will.

Natural Rights

Life, liberty, property.

Inalienable Rights

Cannot be taken away.

Golden Mean

Virtue is a balance between extremes.

Confucian Ethics

Humanism: Moral life without religion.

Golden Rule

Treat others how you want to be treated.

Existentialist Ethics

Freedom comes with full responsibility; you define your own ethics.