APEURO UNIT 6 The Concert of Europe and Revolutions

French Revolution

war that allowed the people to reign supreme, getting rights they had never had before and crushing the monarchy; however, the Reign of Terror involved surrounding nations allying against France and Revolutionists clamped down hard on dissent

Quadruple Alliance

Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia; hoped to shut down liberal French ideas

Conservatism

a political belied that argues governments are most stable when they uphold traditional and established norms and cultural institutions; believe that humans are inherently flawed and untrustworthy; trust in systems that have been handed down, such as monarchy, aristocracy, and religion

Congress of Vienna

A diplomatic conference held in 1814-1815 aimed at restoring stability and order in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, reshaping national borders and reinstating monarchies.

Edmund Burke

An Irish statesman and philosopher, often regarded as the father of modern conservatism. He advocated for tradition and gradual change in society, opposing radical reform. Argued that authority and hierarchy are parts of the natural order of humans; if these are in place, people will flourish

Joseph de Maistre

A French philosopher and diplomat known for his conservative beliefs and advocacy of monarchy, he emphasized the importance of religion and tradition as foundations for society. He argued against Enlightenment ideals, believing that orderly societies require strong authority.

began as a supporter of the French Revolution, but was horrified at its descent into violence

Age of Metternich

The period in European history dominated by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, approximately 1815 to 1848, characterized by conservative political order, suppression of revolutionary movements, and maintenance of balance of power.

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian diplomat and statesman who played a key role in European politics during the early 19th century, known for his influence in the Congress of Vienna and efforts to maintain the balance of power in Europe; believed that only powerful central governments would bring order to the various states in Europe

Carlsbad Decrees

A series of laws enacted in 1819 by the German Confederation aimed at suppressing liberal and nationalist movements, restricting freedom of the press, and increasing surveillance of universities.

secret police

used in Russia during the Age of Metternich to monitor and suppress dissent, ensuring the autocratic, conservative rule of the government.

Greek War of Independence

A successful war fought from 1821 to 1829 by Greek revolutionaries to gain independence from the conservative Ottoman Empire, leading to the establishment of Greece as a sovereign state; Greek victory was in large part due to

Decembrist Revolt

a failed uprising in 1825 by Russian army officers who advocated for constitutional reform and an end to autocracy after the death of Tsar Alexander I (who had become increasingly conservative at the end of his rule) and the rise of Nicholas I to the throne

Decembrists

the group of Russian army officers who led the Decembrist Revolt, seeking political reform and constitutional government.

Nicholas I

the Tsar of Russia from 1825 to 1855, known for his repressive regime and staunch conservatism, which intensified following the Decembrist Revolt.

Alexander I

the Emperor of Russia from 1801 to 1825, whose reign saw the Napoleonic Wars and significant territorial expansion, but later became more conservative and resistant to reform.

July Revolution

a revolutionary uprising in France in 1830 that resulted in the overthrow of King Charles X and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe.

Charles X

the King of France from 1824 to 1830, who pursued reactionary and extremely conservative policies that led to public discontent and ultimately his abdication during the July Revolution.

wanted to return France to how it had been pre-revolution; stripped much of the middle class of voting rights

Louis Philippe

the King of the French from 1830 to 1848, he established a constitutional monarchy known for its support of the bourgeoisie while facing criticism for failing to address the needs of the working class, ultimately leading to his abdication; was almost as conservative as Charles X, his predecessor

Revolutions of 1848

a series of interconnected revolutionary uprisings across Europe that aimed to overturn conservative governments and seek national self-determination, culminating in various degrees of political change and reform.

bread shortage

occurred in France under Louis Philippe; a significant scarcity of bread due to crop failures, economic issues, or social unrest, which contributed to widespread riots and demands for reform during the revolutions of 1848.

French Republic

the government established after the abdication of Louis Philippe in 1848, marked by the rise of socialist ideals and efforts to create a more democratic political framework; implemented the National Assembly; weakened by class division almost immediately

National Assembly

a legislative body established in France during the 1848 Revolution to represent the people's interests and implement reform.

government-sponsored workhouses

encouraged by French Socialists; established to provide jobs and support for the unemployed during economic hardships, particularly in response to social unrest and demands for aid during the Revolutions of 1848; these reforms were in large part taken back when the following election brought in more middle class men

Napoleon III

elected when the National Assembly, facing backlash for economic challenges and social unrest, chose to hold presidential elections in 1848. He was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and established the Second French Empire.

Fredrick William IV

King of Prussia who refused the crown of a unified Germany from the Frankfurt Assembly in 1849; suppressed nationalist sentiment/German unification/demand for voting rights; still agreed to some reforms

Frankfurt Assembly

A revolutionary gathering in 1848 aimed at unifying Germany and creating a parliamentary democracy, but ultimately failed to achieve its goals; conservative monarchy was able to divide the delegates on class and party lines

Alexander II

Emperor of Russia who enacted significant reforms, including the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, creating independent courts for equality before the law for all Russians, and sought to modernize Russia (particularly militarily) in the latter half of the 19th century.

Alexander III

Emperor of Russia known for reversing many reforms of his father, Alexander II, and implementing a policy of Russification to strengthen autocracy; believed in Russian greatness, and therefore sought to industrialize it

Sergei Witte

finance minister of Tsar Alexander III who modernized Russia’s economy by enacting protective tariffs to boost domestic purchases and placed the Russian currency on the gold standard

Revolution of 1905

A wave of political and social unrest in Russia that led to the establishment of the Duma and various reforms. It was triggered by dissatisfaction with autocratic rule by Tsar Alexander III, economic hardship, and defeat in the Russo-Japanese War.

October Manifesto

A document issued by Tsar Nicholas II (or his finance minister Sergei Witte) in 1905 promising civil liberties and the establishment of a legislative assembly (the Duma) following the Revolution of 1905; some of these reforms were eventually roled back due to the monarch’s veto power

Duma

The legislative assembly in Russia established as a result of the 1905 Revolution in the October Manifesto, intended to provide a parliamentary framework.

Simon Bolivar

A Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in Latin America's successful struggle for independence from Spanish rule. He is often referred to as "The Liberator" for leading campaigns in several South American countries; believed Napoleon had freed people from absolutism

Three Glorious Days

A series of popular uprisings in France over 3 days from July 27 to July 29, 1830, which led to the overthrow of King Charles X and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe.

Carbonari

A secret society in Italy that sought to promote Italian unification and liberal reforms during the early 19th century, known for its revolutionary activities; aimed for constitutional government in 1820 and 1830, but the Holy Alliance put down both revolts

Holy Alliance

A coalition created in 1815 by Russia, Austria, and Prussia to maintain the conservative order in Europe and suppress revolutionary movements.

Lord Byron

An English poet and leading figure of the Romantic movement, known for his dramatic and lyrical poetry. He was an active supporter of the Greek War of Independence and became a national hero in Greece.

St. Peter’s Field, Manchester

The site of a large protest in 1819, where a peaceful demonstration for political reform was violently suppressed by government forces, resulting in numerous casualties and highlighting the demand for reform in England.

Peterloo Massacre

The event on August 16, 1819, where cavalry charged into a crowd gathered at St. Peter's Field to demand political reform, leading to several deaths and injuries.

Six Acts

Laws enacted in 1819 by the British government to suppress radical activities and limit public meetings in response to the outrage over the Peterloo Massacre.

The Act of Union

An 1800 legislation that united the Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Daniel O’Connell

A prominent Irish political leader and advocate for Catholic Emancipation, known for his skills in mobilizing public support and his role in the campaign for Irish home rule; founded The Catholic Association

The Catholic Association

A political organization founded by Daniel O'Connell in 1823 to promote the rights of Catholics in Ireland and push for their emancipation from discriminatory laws.

Great Reform Act of 1832

Legislation that amended the electoral system in England, increasing the number of enfranchised voters and addressing representation issues.

Robert Owen

A Welsh social reformer and founder of the cooperative movement, known for advocating for the rights of workers and the establishment of utopian communities.

utopian communities

Ideally perfect societies aimed at improving social and economic conditions for their members; in Robert Owen’s ideal, factory workers would work a limited number of hours and have benefits including education + profit would be second to the overall wellbeing of the community

Phalansteries

communities based on Fourier’s writings that sought to create harmonious living environments through cooperative labor and communal ownership.

“Hungry Fourties”

A term used to describe the period of economic hardship and social unrest in Europe during the 1840s, marked by widespread hunger, poverty, and revolutionary movements.

Whig

A political party in Britain that emerged in the late 17th century, advocating for constitutional monarchism and reform, and later supporting liberal policies during the 19th century; stuck to its belief in laissez-faire policies during scarcity in the 1840s

Bronte Sisters

English novelists known for their impactful works in the 19th century, including "Jane Eyre" and "Wuthering Heights." They explored themes of gender and social injustice.

George Sand

A French novelist and a prominent figure in the literary world of the 19th century, known for challenging gender norms and advocating for women's rights in her works.

Giuseppe Verdi

An influential Italian composer renowned for his operas in the 19th century, including "La Traviata" and "Aida," which often contained themes of patriotism and social commentary; made into a symbol of a unified Italy free from foreign domination

Giuseppe Mazzini

An important Italian politician, journalist, and activist known for his role in the unification of Italy and advocating for a republican government. His writings and political efforts inspired many nationalists in Europe during the 19th century.

Louis Blanc

A French politician and socialist who advocated for social reform and the establishment of cooperatives during the 19th century. He is known for his writings on workers' rights and the idea of a social democracy.

communism

term used by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to describe a classless society where the means of production are owned communally. It advocates for the abolition of private property and aims for a society in which goods and services are distributed according to need; used instead of “socialism” because they believed society would return to being a community

Cracow

A city in Poland that became a center for nationalist movements and uprisings against Austria during the 19th century, particularly in the context of the failed revolutions of 1848; while the upper class and urban working class wanted freedom from Austrian rule, peasants gained freedom from the payments/service they owed aristocratic landowners, so peasants started to kill the landholding Polish nobility