special topics exam 1

Internal Validity

The degree to which an investigator draws correct conclusions about what actually happened within a specific study.

External Validity

The degree to which study conclusions can be appropriately applied to beings or events outside the study, also known as generalizability.

Experimental Unit

The smallest entity that is assigned independently of all other units to a particular treatment in an experiment.

Observational Unit

The physical entity on which an outcome of interest is measured in an experiment, also referred to as a sampling unit.

Precision

A measurement concept describing variability, reproducibility, reliability, and consistency across repeated observations.

Accuracy

A measurement concept describing how well an observed measurement approximates the true value, which is closely related to bias.

Selection Bias

A systematic error occurring when samples from each study group are selected in different ways, causing the groups to differ in unwanted ways.

Measurement Bias

A systematic error occurring when samples from each study group are measured differently, causing unintended differences in measurement.

Cross-Sectional Study

An observational study design in which data are collected from subjects at a single point in time.

Repeated Cross-Sectional Study

An observational study design in which data are collected across multiple time points using new samples at each time point.

Longitudinal Study

An observational study design in which data are collected across multiple time points using the exact same samples over time.

Random Variable

A variable whose value is not controlled by the experimenter and is selected from a population at random.

Fixed Variable

A variable whose specific values are chosen deliberately from a population because they represent specific levels of interest to the researcher.

Continuous Variable

A quantitative variable consisting of measurable values with an infinite number of possible outcomes.

Discrete Variable

A variable consisting of countable values or distinct categories that cannot be further subdivided.

Null Hypothesis ($H_0$)

A statistical statement typically asserting no difference or no effect, assumed to be true until sufficient evidence disproves it.

Alternate Hypothesis ($H_a$)

A statistical hypothesis stating that a real difference or effect exists in the population being evaluated.

P-Value

A calculated probability representing the likelihood of observing data as favorable or more favorable to the alternate hypothesis ($H_a$) than the observed data, assuming the null hypothesis ($H_0$) is true.

Confidence Interval

An estimated range of values providing information about the precision of a point estimate, expressed with a specific confidence level such as $90\%$, $95\%$, or $99\%$.

Independent Variables

Variables controlled or manipulated by the experimenter, also referred to as treatments or explanatory variables.

Dependent Variables

Variables measured or observed in an experiment to assess outcomes, also referred to as response variables.

Causation

A direct relationship in which a change in one variable directly produces a specific outcome in another variable.

Correlation

A statistical numeric measurement describing the direction and strength of the relationship or association between two or more variables.

Type I Error

A false positive error occurring when a researcher incorrectly rejects a true null hypothesis, concluding a difference exists when it does not.

Type II Error

A false negative error occurring when a researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis, concluding no difference exists when one actually does (often denoted by $\beta$).

Standard Error (SE)

A statistical measure of variability calculated as standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size ($SE = \frac{\sigma}{\sqrt{n}}$).

Afferent Neurons

Sensory neurons that transmit nerve impulses from body sensors toward the brain and spinal cord.

Efferent Neurons

Motor neurons that carry nerve signals away from the brain to muscles and excitatory target tissues.

Medulla Oblongata

A brain stem region connected to cranial nerves containing nerve nuclei that serve as integration centers for critical life-support functions like cardiovascular and respiratory regulation, feeding, and vocalization.

Pons

A brain stem region receiving sensory information regarding facial touch and motor control of chewing, while linking the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum.

Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

A brain region containing the tectum as well as the superior and inferior colliculi, responsible for rapid orientation to sounds or visual movements.

Superior Colliculi

Structures located in the midbrain that process visual inputs associated with the optic nerve.

Inferior Colliculi

Structures located in the midbrain that process auditory inputs associated with the auditory vestibular nerve.

Thalamus

A diencephalic structure that processes sensory input and relays communication to the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex and the hypothalamus.

Hypothalamus

A diencephalic structure containing multiple cell body nuclei that regulate autonomic, metabolic, blood pressure, reproductive, and lactation functions.

Consciousness

An arousal and awareness of self and environment achieved through the action of the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) on the brain stem and cerebral cortex.

Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS)

Neuronal circuits connecting the brainstem to the cerebral cortex that regulate consciousness, alertness, cardiorespiratory function, skeletal muscle tone, and pain modulation.

Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)

An advanced neuroimaging technique that traces the movement of water molecules along white matter nerve fiber tracts to visualize structures like the ARAS.

Limbic System

A group of subcortical brain structures—including the amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, cingulate gyrus, and mamillary bodies—involved in emotion, behavior, learning, and memory.

Amygdala

A subcortical limbic structure that influences behaviors to meet internal needs, including feeding, sexual interest, and emotional reactions like anger.

Hippocampus

A curved band of gray matter in the limbic system involved with learning, memory processing, recognition of novelty, and spatial relationships.

Fornix

A pathway of nerve fibers in the limbic system that transmits information from the hippocampus and other limbic regions to the mamillary body.

Cingulate Gyrus

A component of the limbic cortex that, along with the parahippocampal gyrus and olfactory bulbs, modifies behavior and emotional expressions.

Frontal Lobe

The anterior lobe of the cerebral cortex controlling higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, and creativity.

Parietal Lobe

The cerebral cortex lobe responsible for processing sensory input and coordinating motor functions.

Occipital Lobe

The posterior lobe of the cerebral cortex primary dedicated to visual processing and sight.

Temporal Lobe

The lateral lobe of the cerebral cortex dedicated to auditory processing and hearing.

Cerebral Cortex Lobes

The four main functional divisions of the cerebral cortex: Frontal (reasoning/creativity), Parietal (motor/sensory), Occipital (sight), and Temporal (hearing).

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A technique recording brain electrical activity through skin electrodes, serving as the gold standard for evaluating post-stunning insensibility.

Gamma Waves

High-frequency EEG brain waves ($31 \text{ to } 100\,\text{Hz}$) associated with insight, peak focus, and expanded consciousness.

Beta Waves

EEG brain waves ($16 \text{ to } 30\,\text{Hz}$) associated with alertness, concentration, and cognitive processing.

Alpha Waves

EEG brain waves ($8 \text{ to } 15\,\text{Hz}$) associated with relaxation, visualization, and creativity.

Theta Waves

EEG brain waves ($4 \text{ to } 7\,\text{Hz}$) associated with meditation, intuition, and memory.

Delta Waves

Slow, high-amplitude EEG brain waves ($0.1 \text{ to } 3\,\text{Hz}$) associated with detached awareness, healing, and deep sleep.

Central Lateral Thalamus

A specific thalamic nucleus where targeted electrical stimulation in anesthetized primates reversibly restores full behavioral alertness and arousal.

Olfactory Nerve (CN I)

The first cranial nerve responsible for transmitting olfactory (smell) sensory information.

Optic Nerve (CN II)

The second cranial nerve responsible for transmitting visual sensory information.

Oculomotor Nerve (CN III)

The third cranial nerve controlling motor function for eye movement.

Trochlear Nerve (CN IV)

The fourth cranial nerve responsible for motor control of eye movement.

Trigeminal Nerve (CN V)

The fifth cranial nerve controlling masticatory (chewing) movements and facial sensation.

Abducens Nerve (CN VI)

The sixth cranial nerve responsible for motor control of eye movement.

Facial Nerve (CN VII)

The seventh cranial nerve responsible for facial movement and sensation.

Auditory Vestibular Nerve (CN VIII)

The eighth cranial nerve responsible for transmitting sensory signals for hearing and balance.

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (CN IX)

The ninth cranial nerve controlling movement and sensation of the tongue and pharynx.

Vagus Nerve (CN X)

The tenth cranial nerve innervating the heart, blood vessels, viscera, and controlling laryngeal and pharyngeal movements.

Spinal Accessory Nerve (CN XI)

The eleventh cranial nerve controlling motor function of neck muscles.

Hypoglossal Nerve (CN XII)

The twelfth cranial nerve controlling motor movement of tongue muscles.

Animal Behavior (Historical Definition)

The total movements made by an intact animal, as described by Nikolaas Tinbergen.

Animal Behavior (Current Definition)

The coordinated physiological and cognitive response of whole living organisms to internal and/or external stimuli, as defined by Dugatkin (2019).

The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

An 1872 book by Charles Darwin that is very likely the first modern publication on comparative ethology.

Ethology

A field of study focused on evolutionary theory, how evolution shapes innate behavior, and "Why" questions regarding animal behavior.

Comparative Animal Psychology

A field of study focused on "How" questions, mechanisms of learning, and conditioning in animals.

1973 Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine

Awarded to Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, and Nikolaas Tinbergen for their discoveries concerning the organization and elicitation of individual and social behavior patterns.

Karl von Frisch

An ethologist known for discovering bee communication and "language," including the waggle dance.

Konrad Lorenz

An ethologist known for his extensive work on instinctive behaviors and imprinting.

Nikolaas Tinbergen

A pioneer in experimental ethology who formulated the Four Questions used to analyze animal behavior.

Causation (Tinbergen's Question)

An ethological question investigating what stimuli elicit a response and how recent experiences shape that response.

Development (Tinbergen's Question)

An ethological question investigating how behaviors change with age or over time during ontogeny.

Function (Tinbergen's Question)

An ethological question investigating how a behavior benefits an animal's ability to survive and why the animal performs it.

Evolution (Tinbergen's Question)

An ethological question investigating how a behavior compares to that of similar species during phylogeny.

Aversive Stimulus

A stimulus on the continuum of environment stimuli associated with pain, fear, or distress.

Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus that carries no inherent valence but can be shifted toward an aversive or rewarding state using classical conditioning.

Rewarding Stimulus

A stimulus on the continuum of environmental stimuli associated with pleasure or joy.

Ethogram

A comprehensive dictionary listing all behaviors in an animal's behavioral repertoire, along with their assigned names and definitions.

Duration

The length of time for which a single occurrence of a behavior lasts, measured in units of time or as a proportion of time.

Frequency

The number of occurrences of a behavior per unit of time, expressed in reciprocal units of time.

Latency

The time measured from a specific given event to the first occurrence of a behavior.

Ad Libitum Sampling

An observational sampling method with no constraints on who or what is recorded, ideal for initial observations to develop an ethogram.

Focal Sampling

An observational sampling method where a specific individual animal or group is observed during a predetermined period of time.

Scan Sampling

An observational sampling method involving rapid observation of a group where the behaviors of each individual are recorded.

Behavior Sampling

An observational sampling method in which every occurrence of a specific behavior is recorded along with the identity of the individual performing it.

Continuous Recording

A behavior recording method that aims to provide an exact, faithful record of the time budget by tracking exact duration, frequency, or latency.

Time Recording

A behavior recording method where behavior is sampled at specific sample intervals to condense information and approximate a time budget.

Instantaneous Time Recording

A time recording technique where the observer records the specific behavior being performed precisely at the moment of the sample point (beep).

Zero-One Time Recording

A time recording technique where the observer records whether a behavior occurred at all during the sample interval when the sample point arrives.

Avoidance Tests

Tests used to assess fear of factors associated with negative experiences, such as measuring the distance an animal maintains from an approaching person.

Novel Object Tests

Tests used to measure exploratory behavior by recording how close an animal will approach an unfamiliar object.

Cognitive Bias Tests

Tests designed to evaluate whether an animal maintains an optimistic, neutral, or pessimistic outlook.

Sociobiology

A discipline that applies the principles of evolutionary biology to the study of social behavior in animals by merging behavioral biology and social organization.

Learning

An enduring change in behavior that occurs in response to stimuli in the environment.