Approaches (AQA AS-Level Psychology)

Only AS content, so no psychodynamic or humanistic approach.

Behaviourist approach

Only studies behaviour that can be observed/measured, uses lab studies, minds are born as blank slates and all behaviours are learned from the environment, uses animal studies because we all use the same learning mechanisms.

Classical conditioning is learning through associations between stimuli and responses - UCS → UCR. UCS + NS → UCR. Repetition. CS → CR. Important features of CC are timing, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation. Pavlov researched CC with dogs.
Operant conditioning is learning through consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, and punishment decreases the likelihood of it being repeated. Reinforcement can either be positive (adding something) or negative (removal of something).

Evaluate the behaviourist approach

+ Classical conditioning can be applied to systematic desensitisation and flooding to treat phobias by counter conditioning the fear and associating relaxation with the phobic stimulus.

- It is reductionistic, oversimplifying complex human behaviours to stimulus-response mechanisms. Ignores free will and emotions as factors affecting behaviour.

- Over-reliance on non-human animals for research so generalisability to humans is limited. E.g. Pavlov and Skinner.

- Operant conditioning cannot explain why some people repeat unpleasant behaviours. E.g. people who self harm are not being reinforced so according to OC, they should not repeat this behaviour, but this is not the case.

Social learning theory

We learn from experiences, by observing and imitating models (either live or symbolic). We are more likely to imitate a model if we identify with them. Internal mediational processes are important for a behaviour to be imitated/performed: Attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
Bandura’s 1961 bobo doll experiment investigated whether children would imitate an adult model who acted aggressively/non-aggressively towards the doll (more detail in my key studies flashcard set).
In a follow-up study, Bandura investigated how vicarious reinforcement affects imitation. Observing consequences of someone else’s actions causes learning to occur indirectly, by making judgements on the likelihood of experiencing those consequences themselves.

Evaluate social learning theory

- Bandura’s study has low population validity (used 3-6 year olds) so cannot be generalised to the wider population, e.g. adults.

+ Knowledge that children learn through observing and imitating models has led to the watershed (no mature themes on TV before 9pm) and age ratings on films/video games.

+ Recognises both behavioural and cognitive elements in the process of developing a behaviour. Full explanation.

Cognitive approach

Believe internal mental processes should be studied scientifically - by making inferences.
Schemas are mental frameworks about ideas that help organise/interpret information and help us to predict the environment based off of experiences. Babies are born with simple schemas and they develop as they experience more situations. Schemas can create biases (in memory, perceptual errors based on what we expect to happen rather than the reality) and a negative schema (towards the self can impact mental health, and towards others can create stereotypes/prejudice).
Theoretical and computer models (e.g. models of memory) represent mental processes as they are not directly observable.

Evaluate the cognitive approach

+ Has led to the development of cognitive behavioural therapies to challenge faulty/negative thoughts. (Which has a + effect on the economy as people can return to work).

- Use of models is machine reductionistic, oversimplifying complex human processes to those of a machine, ignoring emotions/free will.

- Many supporting studies use artificial tasks to assess mental processes. Low mundane realism and low external validity. Cannot generalise to everyday life.

Cognitive neuroscience

Studies how mental processes relate to brain structure. Brain scanning techniques are used to locate a physical basis of cognitive process. E.g. fMRIs and PET scans.

The biological approach

The nervous system is comprised of the central and peripheral (CNS and PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists of the somatic (voluntary responses) and autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems. Within the autonomic NS, there is the sympathetic NS (fight or fight) and the parasympathetic NS (rest and digest).
Neurotransmitters allow communication between neurones in our brains and trigger behaviours and mental processes, they can be either excitatory (e.g. dopamine) or inhibitory (e.g. serotonin). An imbalance in excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters can lead to mental health disorders (e.g. OCD and depression).
Genetic material is inherited from parents (heredity) and codes for psychological characteristics. Genotype is an individual’s genetic code and phenotype is which inherited information is expressed due to environmental factors. Family and twin studies can determine the extent of genetics as a factor causing behaviours. Monozygotic twins share 100% of DNA. Dizygotic twins share 50% of DNA. With MZ twins, any differences are due to environmental factors because they have the same genetic pre-disposition.
Darwin argued characteristics that increase chance of survival (e.g. attachment bonds, phobias and mate preferences) are passed down through natural selection.

Brain structures/functions

Frontal lobe - impulse control, decision making

Parietal lobe - sensory processing

Cerebellum - coordination, movement

Temporal lobe - memory, language comprehension

Evaluate the biological approach

+ Uses scientific methods in highly controlled environments. Good replicability adding to the validity of the findings as they can be reproduced. Use sophisticated, precise techniques to conduct conclusions.

+ Understanding neurotransmitters has led to the development of drug therapies (e.g. SSRIs) to treat depression/low serotonin. This increases standard of life, and boosts the economy with a healthier workforce.

- Ignores environmental factors influencing behaviour e.g. language learning is due to environmental exposure, imitating models, not a genetic pre-disposition.