Approaches (AQA A-Level Psychology)

Behaviourist approach

Only studies behaviour that can be observed/measured, uses lab studies, minds are born as blank slates and all behaviours are learned from the environment, uses animal studies because we all use the same learning mechanisms.

Classical conditioning is learning through associations between stimuli and responses - UCS → UCR. UCS + NS → UCR. Repetition. CS → CR. Important features of CC are timing, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation. Pavlov researched CC with dogs.
Operant conditioning is learning through consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated, and punishment decreases the likelihood of it being repeated. Reinforcement can either be positive (adding something) or negative (removal of something).

Evaluate the behaviourist approach

+ Classical conditioning can be applied to systematic desensitisation and flooding to treat phobias by counter conditioning the fear and associating relaxation with the phobic stimulus.

- It is reductionistic, oversimplifying complex human behaviours to stimulus-response mechanisms. Ignores free will and emotions as factors affecting behaviour.

- Over-reliance on non-human animals for research so generalisability to humans is limited. E.g. Pavlov and Skinner.

- Operant conditioning cannot explain why some people repeat unpleasant behaviours. E.g. people who self harm are not being reinforced so according to OC, they should not repeat this behaviour, but this is not the case.

Social learning theory

We learn from experiences, by observing and imitating models (either live or symbolic). We are more likely to imitate a model if we identify with them. Internal mediational processes are important for a behaviour to be imitated/performed: Attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation.
Bandura’s 1961 bobo doll experiment investigated whether children would imitate an adult model who acted aggressively/non-aggressively towards the doll (more detail in my key studies flashcard set).
In a follow-up study, Bandura investigated how vicarious reinforcement affects imitation. Observing consequences of someone else’s actions causes learning to occur indirectly, by making judgements on the likelihood of experiencing those consequences themselves.

Evaluate social learning theory

- Bandura’s study has low population validity (used 3-6 year olds) so cannot be generalised to the wider population, e.g. adults.

+ Knowledge that children learn through observing and imitating models has led to the watershed (no mature themes on TV before 9pm) and age ratings on films/video games.

+ Recognises both behavioural and cognitive elements in the process of developing a behaviour. Full explanation.

Cognitive approach

Believe internal mental processes should be studied scientifically - by making inferences.
Schemas are mental frameworks about ideas that help organise/interpret information and help us to predict the environment based off of experiences. Babies are born with simple schemas and they develop as they experience more situations. Schemas can create biases (in memory, perceptual errors based on what we expect to happen rather than the reality) and a negative schema (towards the self can impact mental health, and towards others can create stereotypes/prejudice).
Theoretical and computer models (e.g. models of memory) represent mental processes as they are not directly observable.

Evaluate the cognitive approach

+ Has led to the development of cognitive behavioural therapies to challenge faulty/negative thoughts. (Which has a + effect on the economy as people can return to work).

- Use of models is machine reductionistic, oversimplifying complex human processes to those of a machine, ignoring emotions/free will.

- Many supporting studies use artificial tasks to assess mental processes. Low mundane realism and low external validity. Cannot generalise to everyday life.

Cognitive neuroscience

Studies how mental processes relate to brain structure. Brain scanning techniques are used to locate a physical basis of cognitive process. E.g. fMRIs and PET scans.

The biological approach

The nervous system is comprised of the central and peripheral (CNS and PNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists of the somatic (voluntary responses) and autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems. Within the autonomic NS, there is the sympathetic NS (fight or fight) and the parasympathetic NS (rest and digest).
Neurotransmitters allow communication between neurones in our brains and trigger behaviours and mental processes, they can be either excitatory (e.g. dopamine) or inhibitory (e.g. serotonin). An imbalance in excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters can lead to mental health disorders (e.g. OCD and depression).
Genetic material is inherited from parents (heredity) and codes for psychological characteristics. Genotype is an individual’s genetic code and phenotype is which inherited information is expressed due to environmental factors. Family and twin studies can determine the extent of genetics as a factor causing behaviours. Monozygotic twins share 100% of DNA. Dizygotic twins share 50% of DNA. With MZ twins, any differences are due to environmental factors because they have the same genetic pre-disposition.
Darwin argued characteristics that increase chance of survival (e.g. attachment bonds, phobias and mate preferences) are passed down through natural selection.

Brain structures/functions

Frontal lobe - impulse control, decision making

Parietal lobe - sensory processing

Cerebellum - coordination, movement

Temporal lobe - memory, language comprehension

Evaluate the biological approach

+ Uses scientific methods in highly controlled environments. Good replicability adding to the validity of the findings as they can be reproduced. Use sophisticated, precise techniques to conduct conclusions.

+ Understanding neurotransmitters has led to the development of drug therapies (e.g. SSRIs) to treat depression/low serotonin. This increases standard of life, and boosts the economy with a healthier workforce.

- Ignores environmental factors influencing behaviour e.g. language learning is due to environmental exposure, imitating models, not a genetic pre-disposition.

Psychodynamic approach

Freud founded the psychodynamic approach focusing on the unconscious mind, biological drives and the importance of childhood.

The unconscious mind contains thoughts/memories that are not accessible to conscious awareness but still influence behaviour. The purpose of this is to protect the conscious mind by repressing disturbing thoughts and keeping impulses hidden. Unconscious thoughts are only accessible through free association, dream analysis and transference onto a therapist.

The three levels of consciousness: Conscious (aware of), preconscious (close to awareness, dreams, Freudian slips - accidental slips that reveal parts of the unconscious) and unconscious (hidden depths, trauma, repressed).

The tripartite structure of personality: Id - operates in the unconscious mind from birth, it seeks instant gratification and pleasure, explaining impulsive behaviours. Ego - develops age 2 to combat the impulsive id by acting rationally with delayed gratification. The ego is the mediator between the id and superego and uses defence mechanisms to reduce conflict. It operates in both conscious and unconscious levels of the mind. Superego - develops roughly age 5 and is our internal sense of right and wrong learned through identification with the same-sex parent. It is in the conscious mind and repels id with guilt.

Defence mechanisms protect the conscious mind from the dark unconscious, they distort reality and reduce anxiety. E.g. Denial, repression, displacement (transference), regression (comfort in past) and sublimation (displaying unacceptable feelings as more socially accepted ones).

The psychosexual stages of development are caused by conflict due to the id’s libido building up sexual energy, the 5 stages are ways of releasing this tension and failure to resolve the conflict can lead to long-term consequences.
1. Oral stage (0-2 years old) - expresses sexual energy from the mouth (sucking/breastfeeding) if not resolved, leads to oral fixated habits e.g. smoking or biting nails.
2. Anal stage (2-3) - pleasure derived from anus, if not resolved can lead to traits such as tidiness (anal expulsive) and messiness (anal retentive).
3. Phallic stage (3-6) - attention shifts to genitals, need to overcome Oedipus (boy)/ Electra (girl) complex where children desire their opposite-sex parent and identify with the same sex parent for fear of being castrated or penis envy.
4. Latent stage (6-12) - sexual drives are repressed (sublimation) and if not then leads to sexual deviancies.
5. Genital stage (13+) - genital focussed, discover sexuality and mature sexual interests emerge.

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach

+ Supportive evidence. 3-year-old Hans was very interested in his penis and his mother threatened castration. At 5 years old, Hans was scared of horses (because of a traumatic experience he witnessed). Freud’s theory was that Hans’ fear of horses was a displacement of his fear that his father would castrate him for desiring his mother (Oedipus complex).
- BUT case study so not generalisable, low population validity. - Behaviourist approach can explain his fear of horses too.

+ Application. Psychotherapy is a treatment for mental health disorders, improving peoples’ quality of life and providing a healthier workforce/economy.

- Freud’s theory is unscientific and unfalsifiable, he cannot prove an of his theories regarding the unconscious mind , no experiments, no IV manipulation. Doesn’t align with the goals of psychology as a science.

Humanistic approach

The humanistic approach focusses on individual potential and personal growth. Humanism also rejects the idea of external determinism, believing in free will.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a pyramid model of human motivation organised with basic survival needs, e.g. food, at the bottom and personal fulfilment, e.g. achievement, at the top. People are driven by free will to move up the hierarchy in sequence and reach the top tier of self-actualisation.

Unconditional positive regard involves receiving unconditional love and support, this enables personal growth and a healthy self-concept (perceptions and interpretations of oneself). Conditions of worth are expectations where approval depends on specific behaviours (e.g. your friend will only like you when you bring them food) this can hinder self-actualisation by shifting focus to external validation rather than internal development.

Congruence is when the self-concept and the ideal self align. Incongruence is when they do not align, often caused by conditions of worth, potentially leading to psychological distress.

Evaluate the humanist approach

+ Supporting evidence. Aronoff’s 1967 study on fishermen and sugar cane cutters found that those with greater job satisfaction (fishermen) had higher self-esteem and well-being, because their basic needs were met so they could move up Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. This study had high ecological validity by examining real-world situations.

+ It adopts a positive view of human potential and self-improvement, encouraging people to strive for self-improvement, improving peoples’ quality of life.

+ Application of effective counselling methods with knowledge of unconditional positive regard and prioritising basic needs before high-up needs.

- Unrealistic. Ideas such as self-actualisation are not quantifiable scientifically (not aligning with the core foundations of psychology as a science) and are unachievable (losing hope of improvement).

- Eurocentric, Western cultures centred, not relevant for collectivist cultures who emphasise community rather than individualism.