H&S Exam 2

Herman von Helmholtz

Invented ophthalmoscope, ophthalmometer and myograph. Discovered he could focus the light reflected from the retina to produce an image of the tissue. ~Eye related studies. He was one of the 3 psychophysicists who laid the foundation of experimental psychology.

Ernst Weber

Studied Kinesthesis (refers to the sensations caused by muscular activity). Studied Two-point threshold, just noticeable difference, and Weber's law (quantifies the perception of change in a given stimulus)

Gustave Fechner

Coined the term and was the father of psychophysics. It was defined as the study of the sensation and perception of physical stimuli. He formalized psychophysics as an area of research.

Wilhelm Wundt

Contributed introspection, voluntarism, apperception, and tridimensional theory of emotion to psychology.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Discovered that nonsense material is harder to learn. Also discovered the forgetting curve, serial positioning effect, and spacing effect.

Franz Brentano

founder of Act Psychology

Carl Stumpf

was associated with the method of introspection called phenomenology

Oswalde Kulpe

had contributions to experimental introspection, imageless thought, and mental set

Titchener

founder of structuralism, he believed that the goal of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its component parts, thus determining its structure. he compared consciousness to physics. Had three elementary states of consciousness: sensations, images, and emtions

Margaret Floy Washburn

she was the first female with a PhD, wrote the the standard textbook of comparative psychology; The Animal Mind

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

He believed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics (environmental adaptations during one's lifetime were passed onto offspring), differing from Darwin's theory of natural selection.

John Edmonstone

taught Darwin taxidermy

Alfred Russel Wallace

e co-presenter of the theory of natural selection, Darwin got most of the credit due to having more published works

Thomas Huxley

supporter of Darwin

Francis Galton

Studied newly developed statistic methods; talked about mental inheritance and founded eugenics. He developed statistical methods and mental tests

George John Romanes

thought of introspection by analogy. Came up with the technique for studying animal behavior by assuming that the same mental processes that occur in the human observer's mind. Developed Anthropomorphism

C. Lloyd Morgan

Came up with Law of Parsimony. sort of the opposite of Romanes

Herbert Spencer

Synthetic philosophy

William James

Suffered from hypochondriasis, anxiety, and depression; related to the epidemic of neurasthenia. FOunded the first experimental psychology lab in the US (Harvard). Stream of consciousness. Theory of Emotion. Triparte Self

W.E.B. DuBois

First black person to get PhD from Harvard, first sociology research on Black Americans; the Souls of Black Folk - double consciousness; black people must be conscious over how they view themselves vs how others view them

Mary Whiton Calkins, Helen Thompson Woolley, and Leta Stetter Hollingworth

3 women who made meaningful contributions to psychology as functionalists despite there being strong discrimination against women at the time. Had the hypothesis of men showed a wider range of physical/mental development than women, thus women's abilities are seen more average

John Dewey

Rethinking the reductionism of the Reflex Arc

Granville Stanley Hall

Recapitulation theory; psychological development from infancy through childhood and to adulthood repeats the evolutionary history of the human race

James Rowland Angell

Wrote a textbook that detailed the principles of functionalism

Robert Woodworth

Founder of dynamic psychology

James McKeen Cattell

introduced mental tests to US (physical skills)

Alfred Binet

Developed the first practical tests of intelligence which have evolved into the widely used Standford-Binet intelligence scale used today

Henry Goddard

He used his own translation of the Binet IQ test and attempted to identify mentally retarded individuals in order to prevent them from entering the US at Ellis Island. This created a racist trend, IQ tests were incorrectly used to suggest that racial and ethnic minorities were mentally inferior

Horace Mann Bond

African American scholar; Published a few books arguing that the recorded differences in IQ scores based on ethnicity was attributable to the environment rather than heritability

Florence Goodenough, Maud Merrill, and Psyche Cattell

three women who made early contributions to psychological testing

Lightner Witmer

Introduced the term Clinical Psychology and opened the first psychological clinic in 1896

Lillian Gilbreth

First industrial-organizational psychology Ph.D., Did an analysis of workers by filming workers to analyzing their movements in order to find efficient ways to work

Hugo Munsterberg

Pioneered forensic psychology, lie detection

The three psychophysics guys who laid the foundation for experimental psychology

Ernst Weber, Hermann von Helmoltz, + Gustav Fechner

What did Hermann von Helmholtz invent, and what did he discover?

Ophthalmoscope, ophthalmometer, and myograph
Discovered that he could focus the light reflected from the retina to produce a sharp image of the tissue

What was Ernst Weber interested in studying?

Kinethesis, Two-Point Threshold, Just Noticeable Difference, Weber's Law

Who is considered to be the "father of psychophysics" and why?

Gustav Fechner; coined the term "psychophysics" to describe the study of the sensation and perception of physical stimuli and formalized psychophysics as an area of research

What are the five traditional senses and to what sense is kinesthesis related?

Hearing, sight, smell, touch, and taste
Kinesthesis refers to the sensations caused by muscular activity (touch?)

What is the general extension or real-world implication of Weber's law?

Whispers heard in a quiet room vs. yelling at a concert

In what year was the first truly experimental psychology laboratory founded by Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig in Germany?

1879

Wilhelm Wundt's other important contributions to psychology

Introspection; reflecting on one's own mind to inspect and report on personal thoughts/feelings
Voluntarism; the idea that the mind had the capacity to organize mental contents into high-level thought processes
Apperception; the process by which mental elements + experiences are organized and integrated
Tridimensional Theory of Emotion; Wundt's explanation for emotions based on three dimensions: pleasure/displeasure, tension/relaxation, excitement/depression

What is the difference between two-point threshold, just noticeable difference, method of limits, and absolute threshold?

Two-point threshold; the threshold at which two simultaneous points of stimulation identical in intensity can be distinguished as separate instead of as one
Just noticeable threshold; the smallest difference in the amount/intensity of two stimuli that is required for a person to tell that the two stimuli differ in amount/intensity
Method of limits; having participants adjust a variable stimulus until they perceive it to be equal to a constant standard stimulus
Absolute threshold; the lowest level or intensity at which a stimulus can be detected by one of the senses

What psychologist is known for his self-experiments with memory; what did he discover in relation to memory; and what did he create that is not related to memory?

Hermann Ebbinghaus; discovered that nonsense material is harder to learn
Forgetting curve; the greatest decline in learning of information occurring the closest in time to the point of learning
Serial position effect; the tendency of a person to recall the first + last items in a series best
Effect is composed of two parts: primacy and recency effect; primacy effect is the tendency to remember the first item list, and recency is the tendency to remember the last item in the list
Spacing effect; the observation that the learning of information (memory) is better when spread out over time rather than from a single session

Which psychologist developed Act Psychology, and what is Act Psychology?

Franz Brentano
Act psychology is focused on mental activities or processes as a whole (ex. seeing) rather than on the sensory contents (ex. that which is seen)
Focused on the act of experiencing rather than the specific elements being experienced; later influenced the development of Gestalt Psychology

The method of introspection associated with Carl Stumpf

Phenomenology

The main contributions of Oswald Külpe to psychology

Systematic experimental introspection, imageless thought, + mental set

What did Titchener's structuralism (or structural psychology) generally focus on and promote, and how did Titchener's ideas and approach differ from Wundt?

The goal of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its component parts + thus determine its structure
Differed from Wundt on introspection; focused more on reducing consciousness to elements + combinations of elements than on the processes of actively synthesizing + organizing those elements

Which branch of science did Titchener compare to consciousness?

Physics

Titchener's three elementary states of consciousness

Sensations, images, and emotions

Who was Margaret Floy Washburn, and what was her main contribution to psychology?

Titchner's first female psychology PhD + wrote The Animal Mind; the standard textbook of comparative psychology for decades

What is functionalism (or functional psychology)?

Considers mental processes + behaviors in terms of adaptation to one's environment

What is the difference between how Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin viewed the process of evolution?

Lamarck believed in the inheritance of acquired characteristics (environmental adaptations during one's lifetime were passed onto offspring); Darwin believed in natural selection

Which individual helped inspire Darwin to become a naturalist by telling him stories of the South American rainforest and teaching him taxidermy?

John Edmonstone

Together with Charles Darwin, who was the co-presenter of the theory of natural selection, and why does Darwin receive more credit?

Alfred Russel Wallace; Darwin receives more credit since he had been developing the theory for 22 years and published his first book on the theory in 1859, while Wallace had only written an essay

Who was Thomas Huxley?

A supporter of Darwin

What was Francis Galton interested in studying in humans?

Studying newly developed statistic methods; talked about mental inheritance and founded eugenics

Francis Galton's other key accomplishments (both positive and negative)

Developed statistical methods and developed mental tests

What was George John Romanes' main contribution to psychology, and what ideas did he have in relation to trying to explain the behaviors and mental processes of animals?

Introspection by analogy; technique for studying animal behavior by assuming that the same mental processes that occur in the human observer's mind also occur in the animal's mind
Anthropomorphism; in relation to animals, the tendency to explain animal behavior by attributing human-like mental processes to the animal

What was C. Lloyd Morgan's primary contribution to psychology, and how did this differ from and improve on the ideas of George John Romanes?

Law of Parsimony (Morgan's Canon); animal behavior should not be attributed to higher (human-like) mental processes when it can be explained w/ lower mental processes; related to the earlier philosophical principle known as Occam's Razor
Essentially, the least amount of assumptions should be used in attempting to explain phenomena

Herbert Spencer's negative and positive contributions to society and psychology

Positive; synthetic philosophy; Spencer's idea that the human mind/mental processes exist in their current form due to adaptation to the environment over time

What psychological symptoms did William James suffer from, and to what widespread phenomenon was it likely related to, which was generally afflicting the upper classes of the United States at that time?

Hypochondriasis, anxiety, and depression
Likely related to what people called an "epidemic of neurasthenia" swept across the upper classes, which was possibly related to an increase in work pressure and keeping a stricter time schedule

At what university did William James found the first experimental psychology laboratory in the United States?

Harvard

What is William James' most influential and enduring contribution to psychology?

Stream of consciousness; consciousness is a continuous flowing process, + that any attempt to reduce it to elements will distort it

Who was W. E. B. Du Bois, and what did he contribute to sociology and psychology?

First African American to earn PhD from Harvard
First sociology research on Black Americans; The Souls of Black Folk - double consciousness; black people must be conscious over how they view themselves vs. how others view them
Documented thousands of lynching (1884 - 1914)

William James' theory of emotions (independently conceived from James Lange)

Believed that physiological changes preceded emotional states

William James' tripartite self (the three aspects of the self)

Material, social, spiritual

Which three women made meaningful contributions to psychology as functionalists despite there being strong discrimination against women at the time, and which hypothesis did some of them oppose and largely discredit with their research?

Mary Whiton Calkins, Helen Thompson Woolley, Leta Stetter Hollingworth
Variability hypothesis; men show a wider range of physical/mental development that women and thus the abilities of women are seen as more average

The main ideas of Granville Stanley Hall

Recapitulation theory; psychological development from infancy through childhood + to adulthood repeats the evolutionary history of the human race

The main ideas of John Dewey

Rethinking the reductionism of the Reflex Arc

Everything to do with James Rowland Angell

Wrote a textbook Psychology (1904); detailed the principles of functionalism
Functional psychology is the study of mental operations, the study of fundamental utility of consciousness, the study of psychophysical (mind-body) relations

Robert Woodworth's primary contributions to psychology

Dynamic psychology; concerned with the influence of causal factors on feelings + behavior, particularly motivational states

James McKeen Cattell's main contribution to applied psychology

Mental tests; tests of motor skills + sensory capacities, as well as tests which attempted to measure intelligence using more complex measures of mental abilities (i.e. grip pressure, hand movement speed, two-point skin threshold sensitivity, pain to the forehead, etc.)
Cattell found very low correlations between these tests and the college achievement of his students, which served as a proxy for intellectual ability

Who was Alfred Binet, and what was his contribution to applied psychology?

Binet developed the first practical test of intelligence, which has evolved into the widely used Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale used today

What were the names and uses of the two different intelligence tests administered to U.S. Army recruits during WW1?

Army Alpha + Army Beta

Who was Henry Goddard, and what did he do?

Goddard used his own translation of the Binet IQ test + attempted to identify mentally retarded individuals in order to prevent them from entering the US @ Ellis Island
This created a racist slippery slope, + IQ tests were incorrectly used to suggest that racial + ehtnic minorities were mentally inferior

Who was Horace Mann Bond, and what did he do?

An African American scholar; president of Lincoln University in PA, + earned doctorate from Uni of Chicago
Published a number of books arguing that the recorded differences in IQ scores based on ethnicity was attributable to the environment rather than heritability. The controversy died down but resurfaced in 1994 w/ the publication of The Bell Curve book, and is still somewhat alive today

Which three women made early contributions to psychological testing?

Florence Goodenough, Maud Merrill, and Psyche Cattell

Who was Lightner Witmer, and what did he do?

Introduced the term "Clinical Psychology" and opened the first psychological clinic in 1896

Who was Walter Dill Scott, and what was his main contribution to industrial organizational psychology?

Developed laws of suggestibility as a critical mechanism of advertising; argued that consumers don't act rationally, and therefore can be easily influenced
Consumer suggestibility was based on three factors; emotion, sympathy, + sentimentality
Developed employee selection tests to help choose the best salespeople + business executives
The Hawthorne effect (observer effect); when the observer changes their behavior simply because they are aware of being observed

Who was Lillian Gilbreth, and what were her primary contributions to industrial organizational psychology?

First industrial-organizational (IO) Psychology PhD from Brown Uni
Did a time-and-motion analysis of workers involved filming people on the job as a way of analyzing their movements in order to find ways to simplify their work and increase efficiency

Who was Hugo Münsterberg; what field of psychology did he pioneer; and what did he specifically study in this new field of psychology he pioneered?

Pioneer in Forensic Psychology
On the Witness Stand (1908) discussed:
Trustworthiness of eyewitness testimony
Power of suggestion in questioning witnesses
Forcing false confessions from suspects
Lie detection using physiological measures
Munsterberg was drawn to controversy in courtroom drama settings, and often sold his services to the highest bidder
One of his forensic psychology students was William Moulton Marston; focused on detection (created a test based on blood pressure), but later created the comic character Wonder Woman