Chapter 11: Pastoral Peoples on the Global Stage

What type of economy emerged around 4000 B.C.E. on the arid margins of agricultural lands?

A food-producing economy focused on raising livestock.

What are some primary animals raised by pastoral societies?

Horses, camels, goats, sheep, cattle, yaks, and reindeer.

In which regions did pastoral societies primarily develop?

Inner Eurasia, sub-Saharan Africa, Arabian and Saharan deserts, subarctic regions, and the Tibetan plateau.

What was a significant feature of pastoral societies in Inner Eurasia?

The domestication of horses by 4000 B.C.E. and horseback riding by 1000 B.C.E.

How did pastoralists in Southwestern and Central Asia interact with neighboring towns?

They had a close economic relationship, providing meat, wool, milk products, and hides in exchange for grain and manufactured goods.

What role did camel caravans play in Arabian and Saharan pastoral societies?

They facilitated long-distance trade and were central to early Arab/Islamic expansion.

What was the chief form of wealth in sub-Saharan African pastoral societies?

Cattle.

What animal was primarily domesticated in subarctic Scandinavia and Russia?

Reindeer.

What did Tibetan pastoralists primarily raise?

Yaks, along with sheep and cashmere goats.

How did Andean pastoralists supplement their herding economy?

With horticulture and hunting.

What distinguished pastoral societies from agricultural societies in terms of population and settlement?

Pastoral societies supported smaller populations and lived in small, scattered encampments rather than villages or cities.

What social structure characterized pastoral societies?

Kinship-based groups or clans that claimed common ancestry.

How did the status of women in pastoral societies compare to that in agricultural civilizations?

Women generally had higher status, fewer restrictions, and a greater role in public life.

What unique marital practice was observed among Mongol women?

Widows could remarry without negative connotations, and women could initiate divorce.

What was the most characteristic feature of pastoral societies?

Mobility, dictated by local environmental conditions.

How did pastoralists typically move their herds?

They migrated between seasonal pastures, following vegetation and water supply changes.

What was the relationship between pastoralists and their agricultural neighbors?

Pastoralists were often dependent on agricultural products and sought access to foodstuffs and manufactured goods.

Who were the Scythians and where did they occupy?

An ancient horse-riding pastoral people in present-day Kazakhstan and southern Russia.

What does the gold necklace found in a Scythian burial mound signify about their society?

It reflects their pastoral way of life and cultural values.

What challenges did pastoral societies face in forming large states?

Lack of surplus wealth, fierce independence, and internal rivalries made political unity difficult.

What military advantages did pastoral states have over agricultural civilizations?

They could mobilize horseback-riding and hunting skills from their entire male population and some women.

How did pastoral states sustain themselves economically?

By extracting wealth through raiding, trading, or extortion from agricultural civilizations.

How did pastoralists interact with agricultural neighbors?

Pastoralists interacted economically, militarily, and culturally, adopting various world religions.

Which major religions found a home among pastoral peoples?

Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Manichaeism.

What was a common process for the conversion of pastoral peoples to new religions?

Conversion was often a top-down process initiated by pastoral elites and rulers for political purposes.

What technological advancement changed pastoral societies around 1000 B.C.E.?

The art of horseback riding, allowing for larger herds and wider territory movement.

What innovations did pastoral societies develop to master their environment?

Complex horse harnesses, saddles with iron stirrups, small compound bows, various forms of armor, and new kinds of swords.

What military advantage did pastoral peoples gain from horseback riding?

Mounted warfare enabled the formation of pastoral empires across the steppes of inner Eurasia and parts of Africa.

What was the Xiongnu Empire?

A large-scale pastoral empire in the Mongolian steppes that created a military confederacy in response to Chinese expansion.

Who was Modun and what did he declare about the Xiongnu?

Modun was the founder of the Xiongnu Empire who declared that 'all the people who draw the bow have now become one family.'

What was the significance of tribute in the Xiongnu Empire?

Tribute from other pastoral peoples and China sustained the empire and forced the Han dynasty to acknowledge their equality.

What role did pastoral peoples play in the era of third-wave civilizations?

They created influential empires and spread Islam, impacting agrarian civilizations like Byzantium, Persia, India, and China.

How did the camel saddle impact Arab pastoralists?

It allowed Bedouin Arabs to fight effectively from camels, controlling trade routes and expanding Islam.

What artistic achievements are associated with Turkic Muslims?

Ceramic tiles with intricate designs used to decorate mosques and public spaces.

What was the significance of the Turkic-speaking pastoralists' migration?

They created empires and influenced the cultures of agrarian civilizations they encountered.

What was the major turning point in the history of the Turks?

Their conversion to Islam between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, expanding the faith and altering their role in Islamic civilization.

What title did Turkic rulers adopt in the Seljuk Empire?

They began to claim the title of sultan, while the Abbasid caliph remained the formal ruler.

What role did Turkic peoples play within the Abbasid caliphate?

They initially served as slave soldiers and later took political and military power as the caliphate declined.

How did pastoralists influence the development of the Arab Empire?

They provided military forces and early followers of Islam, contributing to the empire's expansion.

What was the impact of pastoralists on the agricultural civilizations they interacted with?

They challenged and influenced agrarian civilizations, leading to cultural exchanges and changes.

What did the phrase 'the Han and the Xiongnu stand side by side' signify?

It indicated the recognition of the Xiongnu as equal to the Han dynasty despite being viewed as barbarians.

What were the primary pastoral peoples mentioned in the text?

Xiongnu, Arabs, Turks, and Berbers.

What was the significance of the Seljuk tiles?

They reflect the artistic achievements and cultural influences of Turkic Muslims in Islamic architecture.

What characterized the alliances of Turkic-speaking pastoralists?

They were fragile alliances of various tribes led by a supreme ruler known as a kaghan.

What cultural elements did Turkic peoples introduce to agrarian civilizations?

They introduced new foods and cultural practices, such as yogurt drinks, into the courts of northern China.

How did the military capabilities of pastoralists shape their historical role?

Their mastery of mounted warfare enabled them to create empires and influence surrounding civilizations significantly.

Who exercised real power during the Abbasid caliphate?

Turkic sultans

What regions did the Seljuk Empire cover?

From central Asia to the Persian Gulf and from Hindu Kush to western Anatolia.

How did Turkic peoples contribute to the spread of Islam?

They became Muslims and carried Islam to new areas, notably northern India and Anatolia.

What significant empire did the Turkic peoples create by 1500?

The Ottoman Empire

What transformation did Turkic peoples undergo?

From pastoralists to sedentary farmers and rulers of agrarian civilizations.

What was the Almoravid Empire and where did it span?

An empire that spanned from Morocco to Spain.

Name two cities in Morocco that were part of the Almoravid Empire.

Sijilmasa and Marrakesh

What sparked the reform movement among the Sanhaja Berber pastoralists?

The return of scholar Ibn Yasin from a pilgrimage to Mecca around 1039.

What was the economic basis for the prosperity of the Almoravid state?

Control of the West African gold trade and grain-producing Atlantic plains of Morocco.

What was the Mongol Empire known for in terms of size?

It was the largest land-based empire in human history.

What major civilizations did the Mongol Empire connect?

Europe, China, and the Islamic world.

How did the Mongol Empire impact trade and communication?

It created extensive networks of exchange and communication.

What were the four khanates of the Mongol Empire?

Khanate of the Golden Horde, Il-Khanate of Persia, Khanate of Jagadai, and the Great Khanate.

What was the traditional Mongol homeland within the empire?

The Great Khanate.

What cultural legacy did the Mongols leave behind?

They did not bequeath a new language, religion, or civilization.

What was the primary religious practice among the Mongols?

Rituals invoking ancestors and consulting shamans.

Who was Temujin and what was his significance?

He was the founder of the Mongol Empire, later known as Chinggis Khan.

What geographic features limited the expansion of the Mongol Empire?

Various geographic barriers including mountains and deserts.

What was a notable cultural influence the Almoravid Empire brought to Morocco?

The sophisticated Islamic culture of southern Spain.

What was the impact of the Mongol Empire on pastoralists in Inner Eurasia?

It marked the last significant rise of pastoral power before their decline.

What was the Almoravid movement's relationship with agriculture?

It arose from pastoralists who had conflicts with agricultural neighbors.

What was the significance of the Mongol raids conducted in various regions?

They expanded Mongol influence and control across Eurasia.

What was the outcome of the Almoravid Empire by the mid-twelfth century?

It was overrun by Berber farming people from the Atlas Mountains.

What was the role of Ibn Yasin in the Almoravid Empire?

He was a scholar who sought to purify the practice of Islam among the Sanhaja Berber.

What was the relationship between the Almoravid Empire and Spain?

The Almoravid Empire crossed into southern Spain and opposed Christian conquests.

What did the Mongol Empire's size and fearsome reputation mask?

Its modest cultural imprint on the world it governed.

What was the state of the Mongol tribes in the twelfth century?

The Mongols were an unstable and fractious collection of tribes and clans, reduced from a more powerful position.

What significant event occurred in Temujin's early life?

Temujin's father, a minor chieftain, was murdered, leading to the family's abandonment by their clan.

How did Temujin's family survive after being abandoned?

They abandoned pastoralism and survived by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild foods.

What qualities helped Temujin build a following?

His personal magnetism, courage, and reliance on trusted friends rather than kinship ties.

What title was Temujin given in 1206?

Chinggis Khan, supreme leader of a unified Great Mongol Nation.

What was a primary goal for Chinggis Khan after unifying the Mongol tribes?

Expansion, particularly toward China, to secure resources and maintain unity.

What marked the beginning of the Mongol world war in 1209?

The first major attack on settled agricultural societies south of Mongolia.

Which regions did the Mongol Empire encompass?

China, Central Asia, Russia, much of the Islamic Middle East, and parts of Eastern Europe.

What was the outcome of the Mongols' invasion of Eastern Europe in 1242?

The Mongols withdrew from Eastern Europe.

What was a significant setback for the Mongols in 1260?

Their defeat at Ain Jalut in Palestine by Egyptian forces.

What natural disaster thwarted the Mongol invasion of Japan in 1281?

A typhoon, referred to as kamikaze or 'divine wind' by the Japanese.

What was the size of the Mongol armada during the invasion of Japan?

One of the largest in history, comprising thousands of ships and up to 140,000 sailors and soldiers.

What was the relationship between Japan and Khubilai Khan before the invasion?

Japan ignored Khubilai Khan's demands to become a vassal state of the Mongol Empire.

What impact did the Mongol defeat have on Japanese national identity?

It strengthened the perception of Japan as shinkoku, or 'land of the gods.'

How did the Mongol Empire recover after the failed invasion of Japan?

Khubilai Khan quickly shifted focus to expanding the empire elsewhere.

What long-term memory did the Japanese retain from the Mongol invasions?

The memory of triumph over the Mongols resonated into the twentieth century, influencing events like World War II.

What was a major characteristic of Mongol warfare?

Remarkable military victories that allowed them to build one of the largest empires in history.

What was the significance of the Mongol Empire's military campaigns?

They set in motion a series of unprecedented military campaigns and empire building.

Who were the successors of Chinggis Khan that continued his empire-building efforts?

His sons and grandsons, including Ogodei, Mongke, and Khubilai.

What was a key factor in Temujin's rise to power?

His ability to incorporate warriors from defeated tribes into his own forces.

What challenges did the Mongols face in their military campaigns?

Setbacks included withdrawals, defeats, and difficulties in various terrains.

What was the Mongol Empire's population compared to its vast territory?

The Mongol confederation had a population of less than 1 million people.

What strategy did Chinggis Khan use to maintain control over his subjects?

He needed external resources to reward followers and prevent internal conflict.

What was the Mongols' approach to conquered peoples?

They often integrated warriors from defeated tribes into their own ranks.

What was the Mongols' reputation among various cultures they encountered?

They were feared and respected, with diverse groups kneeling before them.

What was the Mongol Empire's approach to expansion?

The Mongol Empire expanded rapidly without a grand scheme, driven by each victory that brought new resources and threats.

How did Chinggis Khan view his accomplishments?

Chinggis Khan saw his career as a universal mission, declaring he had united the whole world in one empire.

What factors contributed to the Mongols' military success despite being outnumbered?

The Mongols benefited from good timing, as China was divided and the Abbasid caliphate was weakened, along with superior military organization and leadership.