Kaplan exam

Sagittal plane / Medial plane

Dividing left and right halves of the body

Coronal / Frontal plane

Dividing body from front half and back half

Transverse / Cross-sectional plane

Dividing the top half of the body from the bottom half

Prone position

A body lying face down

Supine position

A body lying face up

Connective tissue

Most abundant of all body tissues. Serves as the foundation and structure for organs

Epithelial Tissue

Forms the outer layer of the body and provides a protective layer for cavities and organs

Muscle Tissue

This tissue can contract, allowing for a wide array of movements, ranging from waving a hand in the air to the beating of a heart

Nerve tissue

Makes up most of the nervous system. Consists of cells called neurons and neuralgia ( AKA glial cells )

Use of Electrolytes in the body

Critical for cells to generate energy and function. Generate electricity, contract muscles, move water and fluids within the body.

The concentration of electrolytes within the body is controlled by a variety of hormones, most of which are manufactured in the kidney and adrenal glands. Keeping electrolyte concentrations in balance also includes stimulating the thirst mechanism when the body gets dehydrated.

Electrolytes in body

Sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, and magnesium.

Sodium

Regulates the amount of water in the body and is critical to the production of electrical signals needed for body system communication

Potassium

Essential for normal cell function. Among its many functions are regulation of the heartbeat and the function of the muscles

Chloride

Aids in maintaining a normal balance of bodily fluids

Biocarbonate

Acts as a buffer to maintain the normal levels of acidity ( PH ) in blood and other fluids in the body.

Magnesium

Involved in a variety of metabolic activities in the body, including relaxation of the smooth muscles. Also a factor in many of the body’s enzyme regulated activities

Magnesium

A factor in many of the body’s enzyme regulated activities

Digestive system

Consist of the alimentary canal. This canal is the entire path food follows through the body: the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. Many glands line this canal such as the gastric glands in the wall of the stomach and intestinal glands in the small intestine. Other glands such as the pancreas and liver are outside the canal proper, and deliver their secretions into the canal via ducts.

Peristalsis ( Mechanical digestion )

A wave like muscular action conducted by smooth muscle that lines the gut in the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. During this process, rings of muscle encircling the gut contract, which moves food through the gut

Chemical digestion

Several exocrine glands in the digestive system produce secretions involved in breaking food molecules into simple molecules that can be absorbed. Polysaccharides are broken down into glucose, triglycerides are hydrolyzed into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins are broken down into amino acids.

Chemical digestion begins in the mouth. The salivary glands produce saliva, which lubricates food and begins starch digestion. Saliva contains salivary amylase (ptyalin) an enzyme that breaks the complex starch. The esophagus conducts it to the stomach by means of peristaltic waves of smooth muscle contraction.

Circulatory system

Nutrients along with gases and wastes must be transported throughout the body to be used. The system involved in transport of these materials to different parts of the body is called the circulatory system.

Do Vertebrae’s have closed circulatory systems ?

Yes

Cardiac cycle

The heartbeat a doctor hears through a stethoscope is the sound of the chambers of the heart contracting in a regular pattern also called the cardiac cycle

Cardiac muscle

The specialized muscle tissue protecting the heart. Electrical network that transmits nervous impulses throughout the muscle to stimulate contraction.

Sinoatrial node

AKA the pacemaker region, where electrical impulses are sent

Systole

The phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart contracts and pumps blood out of the chambers

Diastole

Diastole refers to the phase when the heart chambers relax and fill with blood

Arteries

Carry blood from the heart to the tissue of the body. Arteries are thick walked, muscular, and elastic; arteries conduct blood at high pressure and have a pulse. Oxygenated.

Arteries repeatedly branch into smaller arteries (arterioles) until they reach capillaries, where exchange with tissue occurs.

Veins

Carry blood back to the heart from the capillaries. Veins are relatively thin walled, conduct at low pressure, and contain many valves to prevent backflow. No pulse, usually carry deoxygenated blood ( except for pulmonary vein )

Movement of blood through veins in assisted by the contraction of skeletal muscle around the veins, squeezing blood forward.

Capillaries

Thin walled vessels that are very small in diameter. Permit the exchange of materials, oxygen, nutrients, and waste between the blood and body’s cells. Central link between veins and arteries

Lymphatic system

Lymph vessels are the foundation for the lymphatic system, which is independent of the circulatory system. Lymph nodes are responsible for filtering lymph to rid it of foreign particles, maintaining a proper balance of fluids in tissues of the body and transporting chylomicrons as part of fat metabolism. The system ultimately returns lymph to the blood system via the largest lymph vessel, the thoracic duct, which empties lymph back into circulation shortly before it enters the heart.

Blood

The fluid moved through the body by the circulatory system is blood, which is composed of a liquid component, plasma, and cells. The cells include red blood cells (erythrocytes), platelets, and white blood cells (lymphocytes).

Oxygen is dissolved as a gas to a small extent in blood, although most oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.

Plasma

Composed of water, salts, proteins, glucose, hormones, lipids, and other soluble factors.

Main salts found in plasma is sodium chloride and potassium chloride.

Red blood cells

Most abundant cells present in blood, and their primary function is to transport oxygen. Formed in the bone marrow.

Hemoglobin

The oxygen carrying component of red blood cells is the protein hemoglobin.

Blood type A

Contains Antigen A.

Blood type B

Contains antigen B

Type O blood

Have neither A nor B antigens, rather, they have both anti-A and Anti-B antibodies.

Type AB blood

Have neither type of antibody

Negative blood types vs Positive blood types

An antigen called the Rh or Rhesus factor meaning they have an Rh antigen, or they do not ( Rh negative vs Rh positive )

Immune system

System that plays a protective role in the body. The trick for the immune system is to be able to mount aggressive defenses; and; at the same time to distinguish foreign bodies to avoid attacking one’s own tissues and causing diseases.

Passive immune defenses

Barriers to entry. These include the skin; and the lining of the lungs, the mouth, and stomach.

Activity immunity

the cellular part of the immune system. White blood cells are involved in this process of defending the body against foreign organisms.

Phagocytes

White blood cell which engulfs bacteria with amoeboid motion.

Lymphocytes

There are several types of lymphocytes, but the most abundant are B and T cells which are involved in immune responses.

B cells produce antibodies, or immunoglobulins, which are secreted proteins specific to foreign molecules such as viral or bacterial proteins.

“Helper” or T cells, coordinate immune responses while “killer” T cells directly attack and dispose of cells.

Respiratory system

The respiratory system provides oxygen and removes co2. The oxygen is used to drive electron transport and ATP production, and co2 is produced from burning glucose.

Diaphragm

dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs and heart, separating the chest cavity from the abdomen. It is the primary muscle responsible for breathing. When the diaphragm contracts, it flattens and pulls air into the lungs (inspiration). When it relaxes, it returns to its dome shape, and air is pushed out (expiration)

Medulla Obloganta

Part of the brain that monitors carbon dioxide content in the blood, as well as many prime functions of the body such as breathing rate

Air passages involved in breathing

Consist of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and the alveoli.

Melanocytes

Synthesize the pigment melanin which protects the body from ultraviolet light.

Sweat glands

secrete a mixture of water, dissolved salts, and urea via sweat pores.

Subcutaneous fat

The fat layer beneath your skin, often referred to as the fat you can pinch

Hypodermis

Deepest layer of skin, located below the dermis and above the muscles and bones.

Vasoconstriction

The constriction of blood vessels

Dermis

The dermis is the middle layer of the skin

Excretory system

The removal of metabolic wastes produced in the body.

Principal organs of excretion are the kidneys. The kidneys form urine to remove nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea; they also regulate volume and salt content of extracellular fluids. The key structures they remove waste in the kidneys are small filtration tubes known as nephrons.

Endocrine system

Network of glands and tissues that secrete hormones.

The endocrine glands

Pancreas or the adrenal cortex

Tissues that secrete hormones

Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pancreas, testes, ovaries, pineal, kidneys, heart, and thymus.

Hypothalamus

A section of the posterior forebrain which is located above the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus connects the nervous system with the endocrine system. When the hypothalamus is stimulated it releases hormone like substances called releasing factors.

Pituitary gland

Small gland with two lobes lying at the base of the brain. Two lobes, anterior and posterior, function as independent glands, the anterior gland secretes several hormones.

Growth hormone: ( GH ) fosters growth in a variety of body tissues

Thyroid stimulating hormone: ( TSH ) stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete its own hormone, thyroxine.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete its corticoids

Prolactin : responsible for milk production by the female mammary glands

Follicle stimulating hormone ( FSH ) spurs maturation of seminiferous tubules in males and causes maturation of ovaries in females. Also encourages maturation of follicles in the ovaries

Premising hormone ( LH ) induces interstitial cells of the testes to nature by beginning to secrete the male sex hormone testosterone. In females, a surge of LH stimulates ovulation of the primary oocyte from the follicle. LH then induces changes in the follicular cells and converts an old follicle into a yellowish mass of cells rich in blood vessels. This new structure is the corpus luteum, which subsequently secretes progesterone and estrogen.

Posterior pituitary

A direct extension of nervous tissue from the hypothalamus. Two hormones secreted by this gland are

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) also known as vasopressin, acts on the kidney to reduce water loss

Oxytocin acts on the uterus during birth to cause uterine contraction

Thyroid hormones

The thyroid hormone, thyroxine, is a modified amino acid that contains four atoms of iodine. It accelerates oxidative metabolism throughout the body.

Parathyroid glands hormones

The parathyroid glands are small pea like organs located on the posterior surface of the thyroid. They secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium and phosphate balance in blood, bones, and other tissues.

Pancreas hormones

The pancreas being a multifunctional organ, it has both an exocrine and endocrine function. The exocrine function of the pancreas secretes enzymes through ducts into the small intestine. The endocrine function secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Insulin

Insulin stimulates the muscles to remove glucose from the blood when glucose concentrations are high, such as after a meal. Insulin is also responsible for spurring muscles and the liver to convert glucose to glycogen, the stored form of glucose.

the inslets of Langerhans

The endocrine function of the pancreas in centered here: Localized collections of endocrine alpha and beta cells that secrete glucagon and insulin. These also secrete glucagon.

Adrenal glands

these are situated on top of the kidneys and consist of the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.

Secretes steroid hormones also known as corticosteroids.

Stimulates small quantities of androgens ( male sex hormones ) in both male and females. Since testes produce most of the androgens in males, the physiologic effect of the adrenal androgens is quite small.

The secretory cells of the adrenal medulla can be viewed as sympathetic nerves cells that secrete hormones into the system. This organ produces epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

Epinephrine

Increases the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscle tissue, causing a rise in blood glucose levels and an increase in the basal metabolic rate.

Reproductive glands

The gonads are important to endocrine glands, with testes producing testosterone in males and ovaries producing estrogen in females.

Nervous system

Enables organisms to receive and respond to stimuli from their external and internal environments.

Neuron

Neurons are the essential of the nervous system. Neurons are specialized cells designed to transmit information in the form of electrochemical signals called action potentials. These signals are generated when neurons alter the voltage found across their plasma membrane. The excitable membrane is the property that allows neurons to carry an action potentials.

Synapse

When a neuron reaches a ya egg it cell, the axon ends in a synaptic terminal, with a gap called the synapse between the neuron and target cell.

Vertebrae nervous system

Have a brain enclosed within the cranium and a spinal cord; together these form the central nervous system.

Peripheral nervous system

Carried nerves from the CNS to the target tissues of the body and includes all neurons that are not part of CNS. Consists of cranial nerves, which innervate the head and shoulders, and 31 pairs of spinal nerves. It has two primary divisions, the somatic and autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Motor nervous system

Unnerves the skeletal muscle and is responsible for voluntary movements, subject to conscious control. Responsible for reflex actions.

Autonomic nervous system

regulate involuntary functions, including heart and blood vessels, GA tract, organs, respiration, and muscles of the eye.

Sympathetic nervous system

Responsible for activating the body during emergency situations and actions (fight or flight response) initiating heart contractions, heart rate, dilation of pupils.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The rest and digest response. Responsible for digesting food, slowing heart rate.

Homeostasis

Body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions in terms of temperature, pH, water concentrations.

Cerebral cortex

Controls all voluntary motor activity by initiating the responses of motor neurons present in the spinal cord. It controls memory and creative thought. The cortex is divided into hemispheres, left and right. The cortex consists of an outer portion containing neuronal cell bodies ( gray matter ) and an inner portion containing axons ( white matter )

Frontal lobe

The cognitive center of the brain, processing emotion, expression, memory, language, judgment, and sexual behaviors.

Olfactory lobe

This serves as the center for reception and integration of olfactory input

Thalamus

nervous impulses and sensory info are related and integrated en route to and from the cerebral cortex by this region

Hypothalamus

Hunger, thirst, pain, temp regulation, and water balance are visceral and homeostatic functions controlled by this center

Cerebellum

Muscle activity is coordinated and modulated here

Corticosteroids

Effective anti inflammatory medicines, but their use is limited by their altercations of fat metabolism and their suppression of the immune system.

Pons

This serves as the relay center for cerebral cortisol fibers en route to cerebellum

Medulla oblongata

Controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, and GA activity. Receptors to detect carbon dioxide, essential for living.

Reticular activating system

Network of neurons in the brain stem involved in processing signals from sensory inputs and transmitting them to the cortex and other regions. Also responsible for regulating activity of other brain regions such as the cortex.

Basal Ganglia

Found in various parts of the brain, these are associated with many different functions including voluntary fine motor movement, procedural and habit learning, eye movement, cognition, and emotions

Spinal cord

Also part of the CNS, the spinal cord acts as a route for axons to travel out of the brain. It also serves as a center for many reflex actions that do not involve the brain, such as knee jerk reflex.

Cornea

Transparent and at the front of the eye, bends and focuses light rays. These rays then travel through an opening called the pupil.

Pupil

The pupil, whose diameter is controlled by the pigmented muscular iris.

Iris

The iris responds to the intensity of light in the surroundings (light makes the pupil construct) light continues through lens

Lens

Suspended behind the pupil? The lens focuses the image onto the retina

The retina

The retina contains photoreceptors that transduce light into action potentials. The image on the retina is actually upside down but revision and interpretation in the cerebral cortex result in the perception of the image right side up.

Rods

Rods detect low intensity illumination and are important in night vision

Cones

Respond to high intensity illumination and are sensitive to color

Optic nerve

Conducts visual information to the brain