Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology - D203

Proximal

Position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or trunk of the body.

Distal

Position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of the body

Superficial

Position closer to the surface of the body

Deep

Position farther from the surface of the body

What percent of body weight does skeletal system account for?

20%

Levels of human body (smallest to largest)

Chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal

Superior (Cranial)

Position above/ higher than another part of the body

Anatomy

The study of the body's structure

Physiology

The Study of the body's functioning

11 Basic systems that make up human body

Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Respiratory, Cardiovascular, Digestive, Urinary, Immune(lymphatic), Integumentary, Endocrine, Reproductive (male and female)

Anterior (Ventral)

Front/ Direction toward front of body

Posterior (Dorsal)

Back/ Direction toward back of body

Inferior (Caudal)

Position below or lower then another part of the body proper; near or toward the tail

Lateral

Side or direction toward the side of the body

Medial

Middle or direction toward middle of the body

Humans have a vertebral column (backbone) so they are classified as what?

vertebrates

The bones of the skeleton are divided into two divisions:

axial and appendicular

Axial skeleton is comprised of

Head and trunk of the body. It includes the skull, vertebral column (spine), and rib cage. Bones along the center, or axis, of the body. Bones of the extremities. It is appended to the axial skeleton.

Appendicular skeleton is comprised of

remaining bones that are not axial so the bones of the limbs (arms, legs, hands, feet) and girdles(shoulder and pelvic)

How many bones in adult human skeleton

206

Compact bone tissue

forms the extremely hard outside layer of bones. Gives bones their smooth, dense, solid appearance. Accounts for 80% of total bone mass of adult skeleton

Spongy bone tissue

Fills part or all of interior of bones. It is porous like a sponge, with irregular networks of spaces. Much less dense than compact bones. Greater surface area than compact bones but only 20% of bone mass.

Five classifications of bones based on size and structure

Long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, sesamoid bones

Long Bones

consist of long shaft, are cylindrical in cross-section, and usually expanded at either end. Mostly comprised of compact bone but have spongy bone within ends. ACT AS LEVERS FOR THE SKELETAL MUSCLES TO ACT UPON.

Short Bones

Generally equal in width and length. Mainly composed of spongy bone surrounded by thin layer of compact bone. ALLOW SMALL AMOUNTS OF VARIED MOVEMENT WHEN ARTICULATED TOGETHER

Flat Bones

Smooth, thin bones comprising of 2 thin and flat plates of compact bone, between which lies a layer of spongy bone. THEY PROTECT SOFT INTERNAL STRUCTURES AND PROVIDE ATTACHMENT FOR MUSCLES

Irregular Bones

Elaborate in shape - not classified into any other category

Sesamoid Bones

Small or bony nodules embedded in a tendon where it passes over an angular structure like a knee, hand, wrist, or foot

What type of bone are these? Humerus (upper arm), femur (thigh), clavicle (collarbone), radius(forearm), ulna(forearm), phalanges(fingers and toes), tibia (lower leg), fibula (lower leg)

Long Bones

What type of bones are these? Carpal (wrist) and tarsal (ankle) bones

Short Bones

What type of bones are these? Skull (Cranial), rib cage, scapula (shoulder blade)

Flat Bones

What type of bones are these? Vertebrae (spine), hip bones, mandible (jaw)

Irregular Bones

What type of bones are these? Patella (kneecap)

Sesamoid Bones

Joint (articulation)

where two bones come together

3 categories of joints (articulations) based on range of movement

immoveable, partly moveable, and movable

3 main types of joints (articulations) based on structure

Cartilaginous, Fibrous, Synovial

Cartilaginous Joints

Connected by hyaline cartilage, have no joint cavity (Joint b/w adjacent vertebrae in spine)

Fibrous Joint

Connected by dense connective tissue and have no joint cavity (skull, ribcage)

Synovial Joines

Fluid filled cavity called a bursa that surrounds and provides cushion for articulating bones (hip, knee joints)

bursa

a closed, fluid-filled sac that works as a cushion and gliding surface to reduce friction between tissues of the body

3 types of connective tissue

Cartilage, Ligament, Tendon

Cartilage

Tough but flexible tissue that covers ends of bones of moveable joints and protects bones by preventing them from rubbing against each other. Gives shape and support to other parts of body like ears, nose, and windpipe

Ligament

Bines one bone to another. Helps to hold structures together and allows for side to side stability. The ACL (anterior cruciate ligament) attaches the thigh bone to the shin bone and stabilizes the knee joint

What does ACL stand for?

anterior cruciate ligament

Tendon

Attaches muscle to bone. Aids in movement of bone or structure. EX: Achilles tendon connects calf muscle to heel bone.

What is the human fetus mostly made up of during early development?

Cartilage

Ossification

Bone tissue is created from cartilage

Major functions of the skeletal system?

1. Support, Shape, and Protection 2. Movement

3.Storage and Release of Minerals

4.Formation of Blood Cells

Immovable joints

allow little or no movement at the joint. Most immovable joints are fibrous joints. Besides the bones of the cranium, immovable joints include joints between the tibia and fibula in the lower leg, and between the radius and ulna in the lower arm.

Partly movable joints

permit slight movement. Most partly movable joints are cartilaginous joints. Besides the joints between vertebrae, they include the joints between the ribs and sternum (breastbone).

Movable joints

allow bones to move freely. ALL MOEVABLE JOINTS ARE SYNOVIAL JOINTS. Besides the knee, they include the shoulder, hip, and elbow. Movable joints are the most common type of joints in your body.

Skeletal system releases what 2 very important minerals?

Calcium and phosphorus

Homeostasis

State of balance among the different body systems that is necessary for survival

Hematopoiesis

formation of blood cells. This process includes the production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets by the red bone marrow, a fibrous tissue found in the center of most bones.

red bone marrow

a fibrous tissue found in the center of most bones

What do red blood cells do?

transport oxygen

What do white blood cells do?

participate in the immune response of the body

What do platelets do?

platelets play a role in blood clotting

Around how many muscles is the muscular system made up of?

more than 600 muscles throughout the human body

3 Types of Muscle Tissue

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

Skeletal muscles

comprise the majority of the muscles in the body. They are made up of three layers of tissue. There are more than 600 skeletal muscles in the human body. ALL OF THE SKELETAL MUSCLES ARE VOLUNTARY.

Cardiac muscle

is only found in the heart. Cardiac muscle is INVOLUNTARY. An involuntary muscle is one that operates independently of your intent or control. When cardiac muscle contracts, the heart beats and pumps blood.

Smooth muscle

found in the internal organs such as the stomach, intestine, and bladder. These muscles are also INVOLUNTARY. For example, the smooth muscles around your lungs open and close your airways; the smooth muscle in your stomach helps you digest food.

What are the six ways muscles are classified?

size, shape, fiber direction, location, action, and origin.

Muscle named based on Location

Muscle names may identify a specific region of the body. Ex the frontalis muscle is located on the frontal bone of the skull

Muscle named based on Size

Many muscles are identified by their size from large to small. Ex glutes refers to 3 distinct muscles: Gluteus maximus (largest), gluteus medius (medium), and gluteus minimus (small). Muscles can also be described as longus (long) and brevis(short)

Muscles named based on shape

Muscle shapes can be important indicators of the name of a muscle. Ex. Trapezius muscle is shaped like a trapezoid. Orbicularis is circular shaped.

Muscles named based on Fiber Direction

Muscles named by the direction the muscle fiber runs in relation to the midline of the body, which runs down the center of the body from head to toe. Can be rectus(straight) or transverse (perpendicular to midline). If muscle fibers run at an angle, those muscles are called oblique.

Rectus fiber direction of muscles

When muscle fiber runs straight. The muscle responsible for "six pack abs" after hundreds of sit ups is called rectus abdominis.

Transverse fiber direction of muscles

If muscle fibers run perpendicular to the midline, those muscles are called transverse.

The transversus abdominis stabilizes the trunk.

Oblique Muscle

If muscle fibers run at an angle, those muscles are called oblique. The internal obliques are activated by bending or rotating your trunk.

Muscles named based on Action

Many muscles are named by their function. Two of the most common actions are flexor (flexion) and extensor (extension). You use flexor and extensor muscles when you bend and straighten your arm or leg.

Two most common muscle actions

flexor(flexion) and extensor(extension)

Muscles named based on Origin/Insertion

Muscles can also be identified by their attachment points. The first part of the muscle name is the origin, and the second part of the name is the insertion. Let's look, for example, at the sternocleidomastoid muscle. Sterno (sternum) and cleido (clavicle) are the origin points; mastoid is the insertion. As seen with the sternocleidomastoid, there can be more than one origin point.

Where are axial muscles located?

The axial muscles are located in the head, neck, and trunk of the body. Found in the same location as axial bones.

Where are the appendicular muscles located?

The appendicular muscles are located in the arms and legs. Found in the same area as appendicular bones.

A good way to determine if something is axial vs appendicular?

To keep the terms straight, when thinking about the axial muscles, think of areas of the body where there's only one, such as one head (skull), neck, spine, rib cage, or sternum. The appendicular muscles always have two of each such as two arms, legs, feet, and hands.

What is the main function of skeletal muscles?

Skeletal muscle allows for movement by pulling on our bones. Without these muscles, we would not be able to perform many of our daily activities.

What is the main function of Cardiac muscle?

Cardiac muscle is involuntary and allows blood to pump through the circulatory system. Without this muscle, blood would not be able to carry oxygen and nutrients to all systems in the body.

What is the main function of smooth muscle?

Smooth muscle involuntarily contracts to help move food through the digestive system and urine through the urinary system. Smooth muscle also assists the reproductive system, arteries, and airways.

Muscle contraction

Tightening or shortening of your muscle. Muscle contraction assists with stability and temperature regulation

Muscle relaxation

occurs when the muscle returns to its normal state after muscle contraction.

Sliding filament theory

describes the process of muscle contraction and relaxation. When signaled by the brain, a skeletal muscle contracts as the thin filaments, or fibers, are pulled and then slide past the thick filaments within the fiber's sarcomeres. The sarcomeres relax by returning to normal.

Sarcomeres

Small units of muscle tissue that shorten (contract).

Groups of muscles work together to help us function in which ways?

Movement, posture, stabilization, balance, breathing, protection, and temperature regulation.

Name the 2 nervous system parts

Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)

Nervous Tissue

The nervous system is made up of a type of specialized tissue known as nervous tissue, which consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves, neurons, and neuroglia, which are all responsible for the control of the body and the communication among its parts.

What is included in the Central Nervous System (CNS)

brain and spinal cord

What is included in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

all nervous tissue in the body outside of the CNS

Main function of the PNS

to connect the CNS to the rest of the body. The PNS serves as a communication relay, going back and forth between the CNS and muscles, organs, and glands throughout the body

Neuron

individual cell. Neurons assist in sending messages throughout the nervous system.

nerve

Group of neuron cells

3 basic parts of a neuron

Cell body and 2 types of extensions (1 axon and multiple dendrites)

What does the cell body do?

Contains genetic information of the neuron, maintains its structure, and provides it with energy.

What does an axon do?

It's like a mouth that allows a neuron to talk with other neurons.

myelin sheath

a fatty substance on the axon which speeds up rate at which they can send information to other neurons. Only some neurons have these

What are dendrites?

they are the ears of neurons and allow them to hear messages from other neurons

Neuroglia (glial cells)

comprises nervous tissue. Thought to once hold neurons together, now known to play vital toles in nervous system

6 types of neuroglia

ependymal cells, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia in the CNS, satellite and Schwann cells in the PNS

3 major regions of the brain

forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain