HIS 323: Native American History Final

The Great Dakota Conflict (Aug. 1862)

1. Background:

   • Tensions between the Dakota Sioux and European-American settlers in Minnesota had been simmering for years, fueled by broken treaties, encroachment on Dakota lands, and unfair treatment by the US government.

   • The Dakota were facing severe hardship due to crop failures, starvation, and delayed annuity payments promised by the government.

2. Outbreak of Violence:

   • In August 1862, a group of Dakota warriors, led by Chief Little Crow, launched a series of attacks on white settlements along the Minnesota River Valley.

   • The initial attacks resulted in the deaths of hundreds of settlers, sparking widespread fear and panic among the white population.

     • 800 Whites were killed

     • Nearly 40,000 fled back east

   • However, amidst the chaos and violence, a remarkable act of compassion and humanity occurred. A group of eleven young Teton Lakota boys, a neighboring Sioux band, encountered the Dakota warriors who had captured seven white women and children from Lake Shetek. Rather than participating in the violence or taking the captives for themselves, the Teton Lakota intervened to rescue the women and children.

   • These Teton Lakota young boys risked their own safety to protect the vulnerable captives and ensure their safe return to white settlements. Their courageous and selfless actions stood in stark contrast to the brutality of the conflict and exemplified the capacity for empathy and cooperation even in the midst of war and strife.

3. Response by the US Government:

   • The outbreak of violence prompted the US government to deploy military forces to suppress the uprising.

   • Andrew Myrick was a trader who was involved in the events leading up to the Dakota War of 1862. His infamous statement, "So far as I am concerned, if they are hungry let them eat grass or their own dung," epitomizes the callous and dismissive attitude of some Euro-American settlers towards the plight of the Dakota Sioux during this period.

4. Dakota Surrender and Trials:

   • Following their defeat at Wood Lake, many Dakota warriors surrendered to US forces.

   • In the aftermath of the conflict, more than 300 Dakota men were tried by military tribunals for their participation in the uprising.

   • The trials were marked by irregularities and injustices, with many Dakota defendants denied legal representation and subjected to summary proceedings.

   • 303 sentenced; 38 executed.

Whitestone Hill (1863)

• Took place on September 3, 1863, near present day Whitestone Hill in North Dakota

• Significant engagement during the Dakota war of 1862-65

  • encompassed a series of conflicts between Euro-American settlers, US military forces, and various Native American tribes including the Dakota Sioux

• The battle unfolded against the backdrop of ongoing tensions between the US gov and Native American tribes because of broken treaties, encroachment on indigenous lands, clashes over resources

• At Whitestone Hill, a large encampment of the Dakota Sioux, primarily women, children, and elderly had gathered for a buffalo hunt and spiritual ceremony

• A combined force of US military troops and volunteer militia, numbering around 400-500 men, led by General Alfred Sully, launched a surprise attack on the Whitestone Hill encampment

  • The Native American inhabitants were caught off guard and were ill-prepared to defend themselves against the overwhelming force of the US military

  • The battle quickly turned into a one-sided massacre

  • US troops unleashed artillery fire onto the encampment

  • 150-300 Dakota men, women, and children killed

1805-1851 Sioux Treaties vs. 1851-1868 Sioux Treaties

• 1805-1851 Sioux Treaties:

  • During this period, the United States government negotiated several treaties with different bands of the Sioux Nation, primarily focused on land cessions and territorial boundaries.

  • Examples include the Treaty of Fort Laramie or Treaty of Traverse des Sioux (1851), both of which aimed to establish peace between the Sioux and the US government while securing land for white settlement and westward expansion.

  • However, the treaties of this period were marked by broken promises, encroachment on Sioux territory by white settlers, and conflicts over resources, leading to growing tensions between the Sioux and the US government

• 1851-1868 Sioux Treaties:

  • Further negotiations were made after, but they were more focused on the escalating conflicts of land, resources, and sovereignty because of the broken earlier treaties (Sioux Treaty of 1868).

  • The Treaty of 1868 established the Great Sioux Reservation as a permanent homeland for the Sioux, encompassing a vast territory in present-day South Dakota, including the Black Hills. It also recognized Sioux sovereignty and rights to hunt and fish in unceded territory.

  • However, the Treaty of 1868 was later violated by the US government with the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, leading to the Black Hills War (1876–1877) and the eventual seizure of the Black Hills from the Sioux in violation of the treaty.

Colonel Kit Carson and the Southwest

• Carson served in the US Army as a military officer and Indian agent, participating in numerous campaigns against Native American tribes in the Southwest.

• Carson played a prominent role in the US government's efforts to subdue and relocate indigenous peoples, including the Navajo, Apache, and Ute tribes, through military force, coercion, and resettlement on reservations.

1. Navajo Long Walk and Bosque Redondo:

   • One of the most infamous episodes associated with Kit Carson's military career was the Navajo Long Walk in 1864. Carson led US military forces in a brutal campaign against the Navajo people, culminating in their forced removal from their ancestral homelands in present-day Arizona and New Mexico to the Bosque Redondo reservation in eastern New Mexico.

   • The Navajo Long Walk was marked by hardship, suffering, and loss for the Navajo people, who endured starvation, disease, and violence during their captivity at Bosque Redondo.

2. Later Years and Legacy:

   • After his military career, Kit Carson retired to a ranch in Colorado, where he lived out the remainder of his life.

   • Kit Carson's legacy is complex and controversial. While he is celebrated as a frontier hero and legendary figure in American history, particularly for his skills as a scout and wilderness explorer, his role in the displacement and mistreatment of Native American tribes in the Southwest remains deeply contentious.

Plains Indian image

• Plains Indians followed the seasonal movements of buffalo herds across the vast grasslands of the Great Plains

• Nomadic

• Dwelled in tipis, easily assembled and disassembled

• Buffalo hunting provided housing, clothing, shelter, and materials for tools and other necessities

• The introduction of horses by the Spaniards helped create a horse culture to hunt buffalo more efficiently.

• Plains Indians were organized around warrior societies and warrior cults, where bravery, skill in battle, and acts of valor were highly valued, Plains Indian engaged in warfare both for territorial expansion and defense.

• Plains Indian spirituality was deeply connected to the natural world

• Sun dance, vision quests, sacred objects (pipe)

• They were known for their beadwork, quillwork, and buffalo hide painting

• Artistic expressions both practical and ceremonial purposes conveying cultural and spiritual meanings

• Viewed as “noble savages” in a romanticized way by the Euro-American settlers, traders, and military forces

Sand Creek (CO) Massacre (Cheyenne and Arapaho; 1864)

1. Background:

   • Tensions between white settlers and Native American tribes, particularly the Cheyenne and Arapaho, had been escalating in the Colorado Territory due to conflicts over land, resources, and the encroachment of white settlers onto indigenous lands.

   • In the midst of the Civil War, the Colorado Territory militia, led by Colonel Chivington, was formed to protect white settlers from perceived threats posed by Native American tribes in the region.

2. The Massacre:

   • On the morning of November 29, 1864, Colonel Chivington's militia launched a surprise attack on a peaceful encampment of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indians along Sand Creek.

   • The encampment, led by Chief Black Kettle, included mostly women, children, and elderly individuals, as many of the Cheyenne and Arapaho warriors were away hunting or had been assured of safety by US authorities.

   • Despite the camp's display of a white flag and the presence of a US flag flying over Chief Black Kettle's lodge, the militia indiscriminately attacked the encampment, unleashing a barrage of gunfire and artillery on the unsuspecting inhabitants.

   • The massacre lasted for several hours, during which men, women, and children were killed, mutilated, and scalped by the militia forces. Some survivors were chased down and killed as they attempted to flee the carnage.

3. Aftermath and Consequences:

   • The Sand Creek Massacre sparked outrage and condemnation from some quarters, including US military officials and government authorities who viewed the attack as a violation of treaties and a betrayal of trust.

   • However, Colonel Chivington and his militia were celebrated as heroes by many white settlers in Colorado for their actions in the massacre.

   • The massacre intensified hostilities between Native American tribes and white settlers in the region, leading to retaliatory attacks and reprisals on both sides.

   • In the years following the massacre, efforts were made to investigate and hold accountable those responsible for the atrocities committed at Sand Creek, but justice for the victims was largely elusive.

Red Cloud’s War (Lakota; 1866-68)

• Background

  • The discovery of GOLD in the Black Hills and the influx of white settlers in to Lakota territory further exacerbated tensions and intensified competition for land and resources

    • The white people were ruining the environment and pushing the bison away.

• Military Campaigns:

  • The conflict began in 1866 when Lakota warriors, led by Red Cloud and other prominent chiefs such as Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, launched attacks on US military forts and supply trains in the region.

  • The Lakota employed hit-and-run tactics, ambushes, and raids on US Army outposts, supply lines, and settlements, inflicting casualties and disrupting military operations.

  • A combined force of Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors ambushed and overwhelmed a detachment of US Army soldiers led by Captain William J. Fetterman, resulting in the deaths of all 81 soldiers in the detachment.

  • Victory for the Lakota Sioux

• Diplomacy and Treaty Negotiations:

  • The US government, facing mounting casualties and military setbacks, sought to negotiate a peace settlement with the Lakota Sioux.

  • In 1868, the US government signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) with Red Cloud and other Lakota leaders

Ft. Laramie Treaty, 1868

• A result of the Red Cloud’s War

• Article I stated that from that day forward, all war between the parties to this agreement shall forever cease.

  • However, like many promises made in treaties between the US government and the Native American tribes, the commitment to cease all war was not fully realized.

  • Despite the signing of the treaty, conflicts and tensions persisted in the years that followed, fueled by broken promises, encroachments on indigenous lands, and disputes over resources.

  • The US government's failure to uphold its end of the treaty, including provisions for protection of Native American territories and resources, contributed to renewed hostilities and mistrust between Native American tribes and the federal government.

• Article II established the Great Sioux Reservation

  • A designated homeland for the Lakota Sioux that encompassed vast territories in South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska

  • Intended to provide a secure and permanent homeland for the Lakota Sioux with provisions for hunting, fishing, and gathering rights.

  • However, the establishment of the reservation did not protect the Lakota Sioux from further encroachments and violations of their territorial rights by white settlers, gold miners, and even the US government.

• Article XII

  • Established requirements for future treaties that sought to diminish the territories of the Greater Sioux Reservation

  • Any such treaty should be ratified by at least ¾ of all adult male Indians occupying the reservation.

  • This provision was intended to protect the territorial integrity of the reservation and prevent unilateral actions by the US government to seize or diminish Lakota Sioux lands without their consent.

  • Despite these safeguards, subsequent violations of the treaty, including the unauthorized seizure of the Black Hills and other parts of the reservation.

  • Native American tribes struggled to assert their sovereignty and treaty rights against the power of the US government.

Chief Joseph (Nez Perce; 1877)

• Nez Perce: a Native American tribe indigenous to the Pacific Northwest

• In the mid-19th century, tensions between the Nez Perce and white settlers escalated due to encroachment on Nez Perce lands, broken treaties, and pressures to cede territory to the US government.

  • Flight of the Nez Perce:

    • In 1877, the US government ordered the Nez Perce to relocate to a reservation in Idaho, as stipulated by an earlier treaty. However, a faction of Nez Perce, led by Chief Joseph, refused to comply with the order, citing grievances over land loss and broken promises.

    • Instead of surrendering, Chief Joseph and his followers embarked on a remarkable journey, covering over 1,000 miles through rugged terrain, including the Rocky Mountains, in an attempt to reach sanctuary in Canada, where they hoped to find asylum with the Lakota Sioux.

    • Despite facing overwhelming odds and relentless pursuit by US Army forces, Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce demonstrated remarkable resilience, resourcefulness, and courage as they evaded capture and outmaneuvered their pursuers.

  • Surrender and Legacy:

    • After several months of grueling travel and skirmishes with US Army forces, Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce were eventually surrounded and forced to surrender near the Bear Paw Mountains in Montana in October 1877, just 40 miles from the Canadian border.

    • In a famous speech delivered upon his surrender, Chief Joseph expressed his sorrow and disappointment over the loss of his homeland and the injustices suffered by his people. His words, including the poignant statement "From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever," have become iconic symbols of Native American resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity.

    • Despite their valiant efforts, Chief Joseph and the Nez Perce were ultimately unable to secure their freedom or protect their ancestral lands from encroachment and dispossession by the US government.

1890 End of the Frontier

1. Westward Expansion:

   • The closing of the frontier in 1890 symbolizes the culmination of centuries of westward expansion by European settlers and migrants across North America.

   • From the colonial period to the late 19th century, waves of exploration, settlement, and migration pushed the western frontier steadily westward, displacing and marginalizing indigenous peoples and transforming landscapes and societies along the way.

2. Homestead Act and Settlement:

   • Government policies such as the Homestead Act of 1862, which offered free land to settlers willing to farm and improve it, facilitated the settlement of the western territories and the establishment of new states and communities.

   • Millions of Americans, including immigrants, farmers, ranchers, and entrepreneurs, migrated westward in search of land, opportunity, and a new beginning, contributing to the rapid growth and development of the frontier regions.

3. Native American Displacement:

   • The closing of the frontier also brought about the displacement, dispossession, and confinement of indigenous peoples, as white settlers and the US government sought to assert control over Native American lands and resources.

   • Native American tribes were forcibly relocated to reservations, subjected to assimilationist policies, and deprived of their traditional lifeways, cultures, and autonomy.

Sitting Bull

• A revered leader and holy man of the Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux tribe.

• He played a prominent role in resisting white encroachment on Native American lands and advocating for the rights and autonomy of his people during the late 19th century.

• Sitting Bull is best known for his leadership in the Battle of the Little Bighorn, where he and his allied tribes defeated the US Army under the command of General George Custer in 1876.

• He became a symbol of Native American resistance and cultural pride, and his legacy continues to inspire indigenous peoples and activists today.

• Sitting Bull was also associated with the Ghost Dance movement, a spiritual revival movement among Native American tribes, and his death in 1890 during a confrontation with government authorities further fueled tensions between Native Americans and the US government.

  • In the aftermath of his death, many of his followers sought refuge with Chief Big Foot's band at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, culminating in the tragic events of the Wounded Knee Massacre.

  • This deadly confrontation between US Army troops and Native American civilians resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Lakota Sioux, highlighting the profound injustices and violence inflicted upon indigenous peoples during the late 19th century.

• Sitting Bull's life and legacy represent the ongoing struggle for justice, sovereignty, and cultural survival among indigenous peoples in North America.

Indian Appropriation Act (1854)

• Piece of legislation passed by the US Congress

• Acts provided funding for the establishment of reservations for Native American tribes in the western territories of the United States

• The primary aim of the act was to facilitate the relocation of indigenous peoples from their traditional lands to designated reservations, thereby opening up these lands for white settlement and westward expansion

• The act allocated funds for the provision of education, healthcare, and other services to Native American communities, although these provisions were often inadequate and poorly implemented.

• The Indian Appropriation Act of 1851 represented a significant step in the federal government's efforts to control and assimilate Native American tribes, while also furthering the goals of American expansionism and colonization in the western territories.

Reservation Period (1854-1887)

• Involved the establishment of reservations for Native American tribes

• Tribes were confined to designated reservation lands, often in areas undesirable for white settlement.

• Federal policies aimed at assimilating indigenous peoples into mainstream American society were implemented during this period.

• Initiatives included the Indian Appropriation Act of 1851 and the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868

• However, promises made in treaties were often broken or ignored by the US government

• The Dawes Act of 1887 furthered assimilation efforts by dividing reservation lands into individual allotments

• The period was marked by challenges and injustices for Native American tribes, including poverty, disease, and cultural disruption

• Tribes struggled to maintain their cultural identities, lands, and autonomy amidst ongoing encroachments and assimilationists pressures

Lake Mohonk Conferences

• The primary aim of the Lake Mohonk Conferences was to facilitate dialogue and collaboration between government officials, philanthropists, and Native American leaders on matter concerning Native American affairs

• Participants sought to address issues such as land rights, education, healthcare, the citizenship for Native Americans

• The conferences attracted a diverse range of attendees, including government officials, tribal leaders, missionaries, educators, and representatives from philanthropic organizations.

• Notable attendees included US presidents, such as Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, as well as prominent Native American leaders like Chief Joseph of the Nez Perce and Red Cloud of the Oglala Sioux.

• While the Lake Mohonk Conferences provided a platform for dialogue, they also faced criticism from some quarters.

• Critics argued that the conferences perpetuated a paternalistic approach to Native American policy, with decisions being made without meaningful input from Native American communities themselves.

• Despite their shortcomings, they helped to raise awareness of Native American concerns among policymakers.

General Allotment Act (1887) / Dawes Act

• the law authorized the President to break up reservation land which was held in common by the members of a tribe into small allotments to be parceled out to individuals

  • It was believed that this policy would encourage Native Americans to adopt Western-style farming practices, promote economic self-sufficiency, and facilitate assimilation into American society.

• Part of a broader assimilationist agenda, it sought to erase Native American cultures and promote Western-style farming and economic self-sufficiency.

• The Dawes Act led to widespread loss of ancestral lands, disruption of traditional social structures, poverty, and cultural loss among Native American communities.

• Its legacy is one of dispossession, exploitation, and cultural devastation, exacerbating inequalities and eroding indigenous sovereignty and land rights.

Trust Land

• Trust land is owned by the federal government but held in trust for the use and benefit of Native American tribes or individuals.

• The federal government serves as the trustee, with legal responsibility for managing the land on behalf of its Native American beneficiaries.

• The primary purpose of trust land is to protect and preserve tribal lands and resources for the use and benefit of Native American communities.

• Trust land may include reservation lands, allotted lands held in trust for individual tribal members, and other lands acquired or set aside for tribal use.

• Trust land is subject to special legal protections and restrictions under federal law, including limitations on alienation, encumbrance, and taxation.

• Despite its intended purpose, trust land management has been subject to criticism and controversy, with allegations of mismanagement, lack of transparency, and inadequate accountability by the federal government

Angie Debo: And Still The Waters Run

• "And Still the Waters Run" examines the history of Native American tribes in Oklahoma and their struggles for land, sovereignty, and justice in the face of settler colonialism and federal Indian policies.

• Debo focuses particularly on the exploitation of natural resources, such as oil, and its impact on Native American communities.

• The book explores themes of land dispossession, treaty violations, government corruption, and the erosion of tribal sovereignty.

• Debo documents how the US government, often in collusion with powerful oil interests and state officials, systematically deprived Native American tribes of their lands, resources, and rights.

• It raised awareness for Native American struggles for justice and self determination

• The publication of "And Still the Waters Run" sparked controversy and backlash from powerful interests in Oklahoma, including the oil industry and political establishment, who sought to discredit Debo and suppress her work.

Grafters

• Individuals who engage in corrupt practices, such as bribery, embezzlement, or kickbacks, often for personal gain

• Grafters may exploit natural resources on tribal lands, such as timber, minerals, or oil, without proper consent or compensation to the tribe.

• Grafters may engage in corrupt land deals, such as fraudulent sales or leases of tribal land, often through deceptive practices or coercion.

• Grafters may infiltrate tribal governments or organizations and engage in corrupt practices, such as embezzlement, kickbacks, or nepotism, to enrich themselves or their allies.

  • They may manipulate tribal elections or decision-making processes to maintain their power and influence and to suppress dissent or opposition.

• The acts of grafters can have devastating consequences for Native American communities, including loss land and resources, erosion of tribal sovereignty, and exacerbation of poverty and inequality

Indian Citizenship Act (1924)

• Granted US citizenship for all Native Americans born within the country’s territorial limits

• Recognized their full legal status as citizens

• Addressed longstanding disparities in civil rights and status

• Prior to the act, Native Americans were subject to a complex web of federal laws and policies that regulated their lives and limited their rights, despite being born on American soil.

• While the act represented a step towards greater equality and recognition of Native American rights, challenges persisted in areas such as:

  • voting rights,

  • land ownership,

  • and access to education and healthcare,

    • highlighting the ongoing struggle for tribal sovereignty and self-determination.

The Meriam Report (1928)

• Published by the Institute for Government Research

• A groundbreaking study commissioned by the Secretary of the Interior to investigate the living conditions and welfare of Native Americans

• It documented widespread poverty, disease, and social problems on reservations

• Attributed these problems to federal mismanagement, inadequate healthcare, and lack of economic opportunities

• The report criticized the policies of assimilation and forced acculturation, advocating instead for greater tribal autonomy, cultural preservation, and improved education and healthcare services

• The Meriam Report catalyzed public awareness and congressional action,

• lead to reforms in Native American policy

• the eventual shift towards greater tribal self-determination and sovereignty

John Collier

• A prominent figure in Native American policy during the 20th century

• Served as Commissioner of Indian Affairs from 1933-45

• Best known for his advocacy of the Indian New Deal

• Series of reforms aimed at promoting tribal self-government, cultural preservation, and economic development

• Sought to reverse the assimilationist policies of previous administrations and to empower Native American tribes to govern their own affairs

• His time as Commissioner saw the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 which encouraged tribal self-determination and the restoration of tribal lands

• Despite controversy and criticism, his efforts did at least represent a significant shift in federal Indian policy toward greater recognition of tribal sovereignty and cultural rights

Indian Reorganization Act (1934)

• Goal was to reverse the assimilationist policies of previous administrations and to promote tribal self-government, cultural preservation, and economic self-sufficiency

• Aimed to address the injustices faced by Native American tribes under previous policies

• Empower tribes to govern their own affairs

• Encouraged tribes to adopt constitutions

• Led to the restoration of tribal governments

• Revival of tribal cultures and tradition

• Tribal participation in the political process and advocacy for Native American rights

• Despite its limitations and controversies, the Indian Reorganization Act represented a significant shift in federal Indian policy towards greater recognition of tribal sovereignty and self-determination

• It laid the groundwork for subsequent efforts to address the historical injustices faced by Native American tribes and to promote tribal rights, cultural revitalization, and economic empowerment.

• Some tribes resisted the IRA's provisions, viewing them as paternalistic or insufficient to address their longstanding grievances. The act also encountered opposition from assimilationist forces and from industries seeking access to tribal lands and resources.

National Congress of American Indians (1944)

• founded in 1944 as a leading advocacy organization representing the interests of Native American tribes and communities in the United States

• advocate for their rights, sovereignty, and self-determination.

• It sought to address the political, legal, and social challenges facing Native American communities, including issues related to land rights, treaty obligations, healthcare, education, and economic development.

• The NCAI was founded in response to the need for a national organization to coordinate tribal efforts and to lobby the federal government on behalf of Native American interests.

• Federal and state level lobbying

• played a critical role in shaping federal Indian policy

• It has been instrumental in raising awareness of Native American issues, mobilizing tribal leaders and communities, and securing important victories for tribal sovereignty, self-governance, and cultural preservation.

Indian Claims Commission (1946-1978)

• Established by Congress in 1946

• Served as judicial body to address Native American tribes’ grievances against the federal government

• Purpose was to try and adjudicate claims dating back to the founding the US

  • including treaty violations and land takings without just compensation

• During its three-decade existence, the ICC heard hundreds of cases and awarded millions of dollars in compensation to tribes

• While providing some redress for past injustices, the ICC’s processes were criticized for their complexity and limitations in fully addressing tribal losses

• Nevertheless, the ICC remains a significant chapter in the ongoing quest for justice and sovereignty for Native American tribes

Termination Period (1953-1970)

• Federal policy initiative aimed at assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society by ending their status as distinct political entities

• Involved the withdrawal of federal services and benefits from tribes, leading to the loss of land, resources, and cultural heritage within tribal communities

• Despite efforts to implement the policy, many tribes resisted and fought to preserve their sovereignty and cultural identity

• The Termination Policy ultimately failed to achieve its goals and was abandoned in the late 1960s and early 1970s due to widespread opposition and outcry.

• Its legacy remains a reminder of the ongoing struggle for tribal sovereignty and self-determination in the United States.

Tribal Categories for Termination

1. "Progressive" Tribes: Some tribes were designated as "progressive" based on perceived levels of assimilation and economic development.

   1. These tribes were considered ready for termination, as they were seen as having successfully adapted to mainstream American society.

2. Small and Isolated Tribes: Tribes with small populations and limited economic resources were often targeted for termination, as they were deemed economically unsustainable or too isolated to effectively govern themselves.

3. Tribes with Fractionated Land Ownership: Tribes with complex land tenure systems, such as fractionated ownership resulting from the allotment process, were often targeted for termination.

   1. The federal government believed that terminating tribal status would simplify land management and facilitate economic development.

4. Tribes with Limited Federal Services: Tribes that received limited federal services and benefits, such as healthcare or education, were sometimes targeted for termination.

   1. The rationale was that these tribes could transition to state or local services more easily than those heavily dependent on federal assistance.

5. Tribes in Assimilated Areas: Tribes located in areas where assimilationist policies had been more successful were often targeted for termination.

   1. The federal government believed that these tribes had already integrated into mainstream society to a significant degree.

Dual-Citizenship of American Indians

• Dual-citizenship for American Indians acknowledges their status as citizens of both their tribal nation and the United States.

• American Indians are citizens of their respective tribal nations by ancestry or enrollment, with rights to tribal governance and resources.

• Simultaneously, they hold U.S. citizenship, entitling them to rights and protections under federal law.

• Legal complexities can arise, particularly regarding jurisdictional conflicts between tribal and federal law.

• Dual-citizenship reflects the unique cultural identity of American Indians and their status as members of sovereign tribal nations within the United States.

Blood Quantum

• a system that defines Native American status by the percentage of Native American ancestry in a person's family tree.

• the federal government and some state governments have enacted blood quantum laws to establish racial population groups

• Blood quantum requirements vary widely by tribe

• Blood quantum has no basis in Native American traditions. Before colonization, Native nations used various forms of lineal descent to determine membership

• White settlers created the concept of blood quantum, which is the amount of "Indian blood" an individual possesses.

• Blood quantum minimums restrict who can be a citizen of a tribe.

• For example, if you have 25% Navajo blood and have children with someone who has a lower blood quantum, those children won't be citizens of the Navajo Nation.

• Blood quantum have been used to prohibit interracial marriages and keep people deemed Native Americans out of public offices or on reservations

Self-Determination Period (1970-Present)

• Signifies a significant shift in US federal Indian policy towards recognizing tribal sovereignty and self-governance

• This era is characterized by initiatives aimed at empowering Native American tribes to govern their own affairs and determine their own futures

• Tribes have increasingly asserted their inherent sovereignty, leading to greater respect for tribal decision-making authority

• Legal and political advocacy efforts have been instrumental in upholding treaty rights, defending tribal jurisdiction, and securing recognition of tribal land rights

• While progress has been made, challenges persist, so the continual awareness for the need for adequate funding and resources to support tribal self-governance and economic development initiatives is still needed

Indian Education

• Historically characterized by assimilationist policies that aimed at eradicating indigenous cultures and languages

• Boarding schools, often run by religious organization, sought to “civilize” Native American children by forcibly removing them from their families and communities and suppressing their cultural identities

• Faced numerous challenges in the education system

  • including cultural alienation, discrimination, and inadequate resources. Many boarding schools were rife with abuse, neglect, and cultural indoctrination, leading to intergenerational trauma and lasting impacts on Native communities.

• In recent decades, there has been a shift towards more culturally responsive and community-based approaches to Indian education.

  • Tribally controlled schools, immersion programs, and culturally relevant curriculum have been developed to better meet the needs of Native American students and promote cultural revitalization and pride.

• Despite efforts to improve Indian education, significant challenges persist, including disparities in funding, access to quality schools, and educational outcomes between Native American and non-Native students.

  • Many Native communities continue to advocate for greater tribal control over education and increased support for culturally relevant and linguistically appropriate programs.

Carlisle Indian Industrial School (PA)

• Central Pennsylvania army post converted to a boarding school

• First non-reservation Indian boarding school

• First assimilation through education

  • Clothes, hair language, religion, etc.

  • Boys - mechanical and agricultural training

  • Girls - sewing, cooking, laundry, etc.

    • The school operated under the assimilationist philosophy that Native American cultures and languages were inferior and needed to be eradicated in order for Native Americans to be successfully integrated into American society.

    • Students were forbidden from speaking their native languages and were punished for practicing their cultural traditions.

    • The curriculum at Carlisle emphasized vocational training, such as farming, carpentry, and domestic skills, alongside traditional academic subjects.

    • Students were also required to adopt Western-style clothing and hairstyles as part of their assimilation into American culture.

    • While some students found success after leaving Carlisle, many others experienced trauma, abuse, and alienation from their families and communities.

    • Closed its doors in 1918.

• Jim Thorpe

  • Most famous graduate of Carlisle

  • Gold medal Olympian (1912)

  • Professional baseball and football player (and even basketball)

  • an American athlete and Olympic gold medalist. A member of the Sac and Fox Nation, Thorpe was the first Native American to win a gold medal for the United States in the Olympics.

  • Considered one of the most versatile athletes of modern sports

Ben Reifel

• He was the first U.S. legislator of Rosebud Sioux ancestry and the sole American Indian in Congress through the 1960s

• During World War II he achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel

• He worked for farming interests, pushed for the Oahe Irrigation Projects, and supported the Civil Rights Act of 1966.

• He also had a career with the Bureau of Indian Affairs, retiring as area administrator

• Born on the Rosebud Indian Reservation, Reifel graduated from South Dakota State University.

Historical Trauma

• multigenerational and intergenerational and collective trauma experienced by indigenous communities as a result of colonization, forced assimilation, and systemic oppression.

  • examples: slavery, Holocaust, forced migration

• It encompasses the loss of land, culture, and language, as well as the deliberate policies of genocide, displacement, and cultural suppression enacted by the United States government.

• Trauma a generation felt is spread to the next as they learn of what their parents go through and feel the effects of their parents’ generations, then it is spread to the next generation.

• Historical trauma has had profound and lasting impacts on Native American communities, contributing to high rates of poverty, substance abuse, mental health issues, and other social challenges.

• Healing from historical trauma requires acknowledging and addressing the root causes of intergenerational trauma, fostering cultural revitalization and resilience, and promoting policies that prioritize the well-being and self-determination of Native American peoples.