Anatomy Exam 1 Flashcards

Cytology

The microscopic study of cells.

CELL TYPES

1. Connective Tissue are called

2. Integumentary system are called

3. Muscle Cells are called

CELL TYPES

1. Chondrocyte

2. Keratinocyte

3. Myocytes

BONE CELL TYPES

1. Osteocytes: ______________

   • Helps maintain the ________________ & monitor its composition 

   • Housed in the ___________

2. Osteoblasts: __________________

   • ______________: Process of creating new bones 

3. Osteoclasts: ______________________

   • _____________: Process of breaking bone down 

4. Osteoprogenitor cells: ___________________________________________

1. Osteocytes: Mature Bone Cells

   • Helps maintain the cell matrix & monitor its composition 

   • Housed in the lacunae 

2. Osteoblasts: Secretes new bone 

   • Osteogenesis: Process of creating new bones 

3. Osteoclasts: Breaks bone down 

   • Osteolysis: Process of breaking bone down 

4. Osteoprogenitor cells: Differentiates into other cells to help with bone generation or breakdown 

Histology

• Microscopic/Macroscopic?

• Study of:

The microscopic study of tissues.

Cytology

• Microscopic/Macroscopic?

• Study of:

The microscopic study of cells.

Surface Anatomy

• Microscopic/Macroscopic?

• Study of:

The macroscopic/gross study of external and visible anatomical features and landmarks.

• Ex. Look at this outline of the hip that tells you where not to cut in surgery 

Regional approach

• Microscopic/Macroscopic?

• Study of:

The macroscopic/gross study of everything within one region

• Ex. Brain 

Systemic approach

• Microscopic/Macroscopic?

• Study of:

• The macroscopic/gross study of a system

  • Ex. Digestive System

Approaches to Anatomy

• Developmental: ____________________

• Embryology: ____________________

• Comparative: ____________________

• Medical or Surgical: ____________________

• Pathological: ____________________

• Radiographic: ____________________

Approaches to Anatomy

• Developmental: Egg to adult

• Embryology: Fertilization to 8 weeks in utero 

• Comparative: Compare across organisms 

• Medical or Surgical: Anatomical landmarks used to see deeper structures 

  • Like surface anatomy 

• Pathological: Structure relating to disease 

• Radiographic: – X-rays, CAT scan, ultrasound, MRI

7 Levels of Organization (Microscopic → Gross)

7 Levels of Organization (Microscopic → Gross)

1. Chemical

2. Molecules

3. Cells

4. Tissues

5. Organ

6. Organ System

7. Organism Level

• __________: Organs working together to form a system 

  1. An organ (can/can’t) be in more than one organ system

  2. __________ is when all organ systems are working together 

• __________: Basic functional/structural unit of a living organism 

• __________: Two or more different tissue types

  1. Fills a specific __________ and has a defined __________

• __________: Proteins, fats, vitamins 

• __________: All (#) body systems combine and work to sustain the life of the entire living being 

• __________: Group of cells combined 

• Organ System: Organs working together to form a system 

  1. An organ (can/can’t) be in more than one organ system

  2. Homeostasis is when all organ systems are working together 

• Cells: Basic functional/structural unit of a living organism 

• Organ: Two or more different tissue types

  1. Fills a specific function and has a defined shape

• Molecules: Proteins, fats, vitamins 

• Organism Level: All 11 body systems combine and work to sustain the life of the entire living being 

• Tissues: Group of cells combined 

Anatomical Position

The standard reference position where the body is standing upright, feet forward, and palms facing forward.

Sagittal Plane: Anatomical plane that divides the body into _____ and _____ sections.

Sagittal Plane Movement: ________________ (parallel to plane)

• 3 types: ___________________

Sagittal Plane: Anatomical plane that divides the body into left and right sections.

Sagittal Plane Movement: Forward and backward (parallel to plane)

• Flexion: decrease in the reference angle (like flexing)

• Extension: increase in the reference angle

• Hyperextension: increase in the reference angle beyond anatomical position

Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Anatomical plane that divides the body into _________ and _________ sections

Frontal Plane Movement: _________ (parallel to plane)

• 2 types: _____________________

Anatomical plane that divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections.

Frontal Plane Movement: Side to side (parallel to plane)

• Abduction: move away from the midline of the body (absence)

• Adduction: move toward the midline of the body (advance)

Transverse Plane: Anatomical plane that divides the body into __________ and __________ sections.

Transverse Plane Movement: ___________________ (parallel to plane)

• 2 types: __________________________

Anatomical plane that divides the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior) sections.

Transverse Plane Movement: Rotational around the vertical axis (parallel to plane)

• Medial rotation: anterior surface moving medially.

  • Front surface moving towards the middle of the body 

• Lateral rotation: anterior surface moving laterally.

  • Front surface moving towards the sides of the body 

• Movement is always __________________

  • Ex. Swinging your arms by your side is ______ movement, while making the sunrise motion is ______

• Movement is always parallel to the plane!!! 

  • Ex. Swinging your arms by your side is sagittal movement, while making the sunrise motion is frontal 

1. ____________: Pulling your fingers and hand backward, like making a "stop" sign or prepping for a push-up.

2. ____________: Bend your elbow at a 90-degree angle and move your hand inward toward your stomach or opposite hip

3. ____________: Straightening your leg out to stand up

4. ____________: Lifting your arms straight out to the sides to form a "T" shape

5. ____________: Keep your leg straight and turn your toes outward so they point away from each other

6. ____________: Lifting a dumbbell during a bicep curl (bringing your forearm closer to your upper arm)

7. ____________: Squeezing your thighs together or crossing one leg over the other

1. Hyperextension: Pulling your fingers and hand backward, like making a "stop" sign or prepping for a push-up.

2. Medial Rotation: Bend your elbow at a 90-degree angle and move your hand inward toward your stomach or opposite hip

3. Extension: Straightening your leg out to stand up

4. Abduction: Lifting your arms straight out to the sides to form a "T" shape

5. Lateral Rotation: Keep your leg straight and turn your toes outward so they point away from each other

6. Flexion: Lifting a dumbbell during a bicep curl (bringing your forearm closer to your upper arm)

7. Adduction: Squeezing your thighs together or crossing one leg over the other

• Terms of Direction:

  • ______________: Top & Bottom 

  • ______________: Middle & Outer Side 

  • ______________: Towards & Away from the body

    • Elbow is ________ and hand is ________

  • ______________: Towards the head & Towards the tailbone

    • Ex. The chest is ________ to the stomach.

  • ______________: Front & Back

  • ______________: Front & Back

  • ______________: Parts of the foot

    • ________ is the sole, ________ is what you look down and see 

  • ______________: Parts of the hand

    • ________ is the palms, ________ is the back with the fingernails

• Terms of Direction:

  • Superior & Inferior: Top & Bottom 

  • Medial & Lateral: Middle & Outer Side 

  • Proximal & Distal: Towards & Away from the body

    • Elbow is proximal and hand is distal 

  • Cranial & Caudal: Towards the head & Towards the tailbone

    • Ex. The chest is cranial to the stomach.

  • Anterior & Posterior: Front & Back

  • Ventral & Dorsal: Front & Back

  • Plantar & Dorsal: Parts of the foot

    • Plantar is the sole, dorsal is what you look down and see 

  • Palmar & Dorsal: Parts of the hand

    • Palmar is the palms, dorsal is the back with the fingernails

Fill in the levels

Fill in the levels

2/4 Classes of Tissues

• Epithelia

  • Functions: (3)

  • Example:

• Connective Tissue

  • Function: (3)

  • Example:

• Epithelia (Covers, lines, and GLANDS)

  • Function:

    • Cover exposed internal and external surfaces

      • (Protect against physical/chemical/biological agents) 

    • Line internal vessels, passageways, and cavities

      • (Control permeability)

    • Forms gland tissue and produce secretion in glands

  • Example: Skin

• Connective Tissue: (Fills, structure, energy storage)

  • Functions:

    • Fill in void spaces

    • Provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs

    • Provide a location to store energy

  • Example: Bone, Blood, cartilage 

2/4 Classes of Tissues

• Muscle Tissue

  • Functions: (3)

• Neural Tissue

  • Functions: (3)

• Muscle Tissue Functions: (smooth, skeletal, cardiac)

  • Smooth muscle tissue: Contracts to produce movement or to propel liquids

  • Skeletal muscle tissue: Maintains body’s correct posture

  • Cardiac muscle tissue: Circulates blood & blood pressure / assists in maintaining body temperature

• Neural Tissue Functions: (carries info, electrical impulses, sensory motor)

  • Carries information to organ / tissue systems

  • Conducts electrical impulses

  • Responsible for sensory and motor function (Electrical impulse sends sensory and motor information)

Main tissue type in glands?

Epithelia

Characteristics of Epithelia

• Cellularity: _______________

• Polarity: _______________

• Avascularity: ______________

Characteristics of Epithelia

• Cellularity: Made of cells 

  • High degree of interlocking occurring between adjacent cells, which ensures it’s not too permeable 

• Polarity: Uneven distribution of organelles inside cells 

• Avascularity: No blood vessels going to or from it (So it removes waste and gets nutrients through secretion & absorption) 

Attachment Characteristics of Epithelia

• Apical surface: ___________________

  • Doesn’t need to be the top- for example it’s the part of the blood vessel _________________

• Basolateral: Where it’s anchored to the _______________

• Lamina propria: A thin layer of loose connective tissue that sits directly ______________________

Attachment Characteristics of Epithelia

• Apical surface: The exposed surface of the epithelia

  • Doesn’t need to be the top- for example it’s the part of the blood vessel touching the blood 

• Basolateral: Where it’s anchored to the basement membrane 

• Lamina propria: A thin layer of loose connective tissue that sits directly beneath the surface lining (epithelia) 

Characteristics of Epithelia

• Regeneration: _________________________________

• Microvilli: ____________________________

• Adjacent Connections: ____________________________

Characteristics of Epithelia

• Regeneration: Replacement of epithelial cells at the apical suffice through the division of stem cells located near the basement membrane 

• Microvilli: Significantly increase the cell’s apical surface area to maximize efficiency in absorption or secretion 

• Adjacent Connections: Intercellular connections that maintain the epithelium's structural integrity & regulate permeability

Neuroepithelium

A highly specialized type of epithelia located in sense organs that provides sensory perception.

Simple Epithelium

Epithelial tissue consisting of a single layer of cells attached to the basement membrane.

Stratified Epithelium

Epithelial tissue consisting of two or more layers of cells (stronger than simple) 

Pseudostratified Epithelium

Has nuclei of varying heights (which implies it’s stratified) but every cell has a connection to the basement membrane which means it’s simple.

Squamous Cells

Looks squashed, and looking at the top (apical surface) looks like fried eggs side by side 

• Look at the apical surface (top) to determine shape. It could still look cuboidal at the bottom

Cuboidal Cells

Box-shaped or hexagonal epithelial cells with centrally located nuclei

• Looking at the apical surface, it looks mostly even and the nucleus is central

Columnar Cells

Epithelial cells whose height is consistently greater than their width.

Components of Epithelium

• Villi:

  • Definition:

  • Location:

  • Function:

• Cilia:

  • Definition:

  • Location:

  • Function:

Components of Epithelium

• Villi:

  • Folds of tissue composed of entire sheets of epithelial cells

  • Located in the intestinal walls

  • Increases total tissue surface area (apical surface) for nutrient absorption 

• Cilia:

  • Hair-like projections on the apical surface of specific epithelial cells

  • Located mainly in respiratory tract and fallopian tubes

  • Beats to propel fluids, mucus, or particles across the cell surface 

Transitional Epithelium

Specialized epithelium capable of significant stretching, located in organs of the urinary system like the bladder.

Gland: ________________________________________

• Glands are made out of __________

• Relation to organs: ________________________

• Example: _______________________

Gland: A cell, group of cells, or organ specialized to synthesize and release a product

• Glands made out of epithelia 

• Relation to organs: Can be entire organ or a portion of an organ

• Example: Salivary gland – produces saliva, which is functionally important for breaking down sugars and packaging food for digestion

• Secretion vs. Excretion:

  • Secretion is ________________________, versus excretion which is ________________________

  • Exocytosis: ________________________

• Secretion vs. Excretion:

  • Secretion is synthesis and release of a product for further use, versus excretion which is elimination of a waste product

  • Exocytosis: Transport of product outside of the cell

Exocrine Glands

• Method of release:

• Polarized/Unpolarized:

• Further classifications as to the type of exocrine gland:

Exocrine Glands

• Glands that release their secretory products onto an epithelial surface directly or through a duct system.

• Cells polarized: Organelles placed in a functional location

• Further classifications as to the type of exocrine gland: Single cell / Multiple Cells, Simple duct / Complex Duct

Endocrine Glands

• Method of release:

• Polarized/Unpolarized:

• Produces:

• NO DUCTS (Use diffusion into capillaries instead)

• NO polarization within the cell (No need to “aim” product onto surface or into duct)

• Produces HORMONES (Small, easy to diffuse)

Mode of Product Release:

• Merocrine Secretion

  • Ex.

• Apocrine Secretion

  • Ex.

• Merocrine Secretion: Releases the product via exocytosis without losing any cell material

  • Ex. Saliva, Sweat

• Apocrine Secretion: Releases the product along with a little bit of cytoplasm 

  • Ex. Breast Milk, Sweat

Mode of Product Release:

• Holocrine:

  • Ex.

• Endocrine:

  • Ex.

• Holocrine: Product packs the cell until the cell explodes 

  • Ex. Oil gland

• Endocrine: Released into a vessel for transport 

  • Ex. Hormones 

Connective Tissue: ___________________________

• Function of Connective Tissues: (6)

Connective Tissue: Supportive tissue consisting mainly of extracellular matrix, ground substance, and highly specialized cells 

• Function of Connective Tissues (SPITED)

  • Store energy (lipids)

  • Protecting and supporting surrounding tissues

  • Interconnecting tissues

  • Transporting liquids throughout circulatory / lymph systems

  • Establish structural framework

  • Defending body from infections or other harmful substances

• Fluid Ct: Cells and fibers supported in a ________ matrix

• CT Proper: Cells and fibers supported in a ________ matrix 

• Supporting CT: Cells and fibers supported in a ________ matrix

  • Bones are ________

• Fluid Ct: Cells and fibers supported in a watery matrix

• CT Proper: Cells and fibers supported in a syrupy ground matrix 

• Supporting CT: Cells and fibers supported in a gel like matrix

  • Bones are calcified 

Connective Tissue (CT) Proper: Refers to CT with ______________________

• Fiber Types: (3)

Connective Tissue (CT) Proper: Refers to CT with many types of cells and extracellular fibers in a syrupy ground substance

• Fiber Types: Collagen, Elastic, Reticular

Connective Tissue Proper FIBERS

• Collagen:

  • Appearance:

  • Attributes:

  • Force Type:

• Elastic:

  • Appearance:

  • Attributes:

  • Force Type:

• Reticular:

  • Appearance:

  • Attributes:

  • Force Type:

• Collagen:

  • Appearance: Very long, straight, and unbranched (Moving in one direction)

  • Attributes: Strongest and most abundant 

  • Force Type: Very good at handling a tensile force (moving in one direction) 

• Elastic:

  • Appearance: Branching & wavy

  • Attributes: Can stretch up to 100 times their length 

  • Force Type: Can handle force in multiple directions.

• Reticular: Branched and interwoven

  • Appearance: Thinner than collagen fibers

  • Attributes: Forms a delicate, net-like supportive mesh for soft organs

  • Force Type: Can handle force in multiple directions.

Connective Tissue Proper FIXED CELLS

• Fibrocytes: ______________

• Fibroblasts: ______________

• Mesenchymal: ______________

• Macrophages: ______________

• Melanocytes: ______________

• Adipocytes: ______________

Connective Tissue Proper FIXED CELLS

• Fibrocytes: Maintains connective tissue fibers

• Fibroblasts: Produce connective tissue fibers 

• Mesenchymal: Can differentiate into different cell types 

• Macrophages: Engulfs damaged cells or pathogens (trash collectors) 

• Melanocytes: Contains melanin (responsible for pigmentation) 

• Adipocytes: Fat cells 

Connective Tissue Proper WANDERING CELLS (Able to move around / not fixed)

• Macrophages:

• Microphages:

• Lymphocytes:

All immune system white blood cells

• Macrophages: Engulf and digest pathogens and cellular debris

• Microphages: Act as first responders to destroy bacteria

• Lymphocytes: Responsible for targeted, long-term immunity

CT Proper:

• Mast cells: _______________________________

  • Histamine: _____________

  • Heparin: _____________

• Ground Substance: _____________

• Loose vs Dense

  • Loose splits into ________, ________, and ________ (Don’t need to identify in image)

  • Dense splits into ________ and ________ (Should identify) 

CT Proper:

• Mast cells: Near blood vessels and aid in the inflammatory response 

  • Histamine: Causes swelling, itching 

  • Heparin: Prevents blood clotting

• Ground Substance: Clear, syrupy consistency 

• Loose vs Dense

  • Loose splits into areolar, adipose, and reticular (Don’t need to identify in image)

  • Dense splits into regular and irregular (Should identify) 

Loose or dense CT Proper?

• IF DENSE: Regular or Irregular

Loose CT Proper: Light shines through loose connective tissue

Loose or dense CT Proper?

• IF DENSE: Regular or Irregular

Dense Irregular CT: Fibers & bundles in multiple directions 

Loose or dense CT Proper?

• IF DENSE: Regular or Irregular

Loose + Adipocytes (fat cells): Looks like white blobs 

Loose or dense CT Proper?

• IF DENSE: Regular or Irregular

Loose + Reticular fibers: Lots of little dots and fibers 

Loose or dense CT Proper?

• IF DENSE: Regular or Irregular

Dense Regular CT: Fibers flow in one direction (Makes up tendons and ligaments)

Fluid Connective Tissue

Fluid Connective Tissue: Refers to distinct population of cells suspended in watery matrix containing dissolved proteins (blood & lymph)

Supporting Connective Tissue: (Less/More) diverse cell population than other types of CT.

• Examples: _______ & ________

• Cell type: _____________________

  • Lacunae: _____________________

  • (Vascular/Avascular) & (Loose/Dense) (Regular/Irregular)

Supporting Connective Tissue: Less diverse cell population than other types of CT.

• Examples: Bone & Cartilage

• Cell type: Chondrocyte (Chondro = cartilage) 

  • Lacunae: Space where chondrocytes exists 

  • Avascular & Dense Irregular

Supporting Connective Tissue: Is this Fibrocartilage, Hyaline Cartilage, or Elastic Cartilage?

• Location:

• Attributes:

• Hyaline Cartilage (White color in the body)

  • Located in areas of high friction (Ex. reduces friction where bones meet)

  • Very tough but flexible 

Supporting Connective Tissue: Is this Fibrocartilage, Hyaline Cartilage, or Elastic Cartilage?

• Location:

• Attributes:

• Fibrocartilage

  • Located in areas of high stress (Ex. Knee joints) 

  • Very good with one directional forces like compression 

Supporting Connective Tissue: Is this Fibrocartilage, Hyaline Cartilage, or Elastic Cartilage?

• Location:

• Attributes:

• Elastic Cartilage

  • Found in structures like the external ear

  • Highly flexible cartilage containing abundant elastic fibers

3 Divisions of the Integumentary System

• Epidermis: The superficial outer layer of skin composed of stratified squamous epithelium.

• Dermis: The middle layer of skin containing blood vessels, nerves, and glands.

• Hypodermis: The deep subcutaneous fat layer separated from dermis by a layer called fascia 

Epidermis Layers (Deep to Superficial)

1. _________________ (where’s it located)

2. _________________

3. _________________

4. _________________

5. _________________ (where’s it located)

Why do we sometimes say there’s 4 layers?

Epidermis Layers (Germs spin grand lucid corn)

1. Stratum germinativum (Stem cells attached to the basal surface)

2. Stratum spinosum

3. Stratum granulosum

4. Stratum lucidum

5. Stratum corneum (Apical surface with high levels of interlocking so things don’t get through)

The stratum lucidum is present in thick skin only (palms and bottom of feet), so we say the epidermis has 4 or 5 layers depending on the area.

• Glassy-like appearance if present

2 Layers of the Dermis

• __________________ (superficial layer)

  • Type of CT

  • Contains

• __________________ (deeper layer)

  • Type of CT

  • Contains

• Papillary layer (under epidermis- superficial layer) 

  • Loose CT proper

  • Contains capillaries and nerve endings or sensory apparatus (merkel cells and dendrites)

• Reticular layer (deeper layer) 

  • Dense irregular CT proper

  • Contains blood vessels, hair follicles, nerves, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, collagen fibers

Hypodermis

• Otherwise known as:

• Type of CT:

• Contains:

• Distribution/accumulation of adipose tissue in hypodermis is _____ dependent

Hypodermis:

• Subcutaneous layer

• Loose CT proper

• Contains abundance of fat cells (adipose cells) – energy store

• Distribution/accumulation of adipose tissue in hypodermis is sex dependent

Main cell type in Integumentary system?

• Forms what type of epithelium?

Keratinocyte is the predominant cell type of the integumentary system forming stratified squamous epithelium.

Melanocyte:

• Produces:

• UV exposure causes melanocytes to:

• Skin color is due to:

• Produces: melanin which prevent skin damage by absorbing UV radiation

• UV exposure causes melanocytes to: increase melanin synthesis and transfer

• Skin color is due to: the amount of melanin and skin vascularization

• Accessory Structures of the Integumentary System → Hair Follicle

  • Root Hair Plexus: ______________________

  • Sebaceous glands: ______________________

  • Arrector pili muscle: ______________________

• Accessory Structures of the Integumentary System → Hair Follicle

  • Root Hair Plexus: Nerve ending to sense movement of hair 

  • Sebaceous glands: Secretes sebum (oily substance) 

  • Arrector pili muscle: Makes your hair stand on end 

Integumentary System

• Accessory Structures of the Integumentary System → Nail

  • Lunula: Pale because ________________________

  • ______________ can change the strength and texture of the nail

  • Color can indicate _________ or _________

  • Pressing on nail demonstrates _______________________

• Nail

  • Lunula: Pale because it’s in a region where blood vessels are obscured

  • Nutritional deficiencies can change the strength and texture of the nail

  • Color can indicate hypoxia or anemia

  • Pressing on nail demonstrates how fast blood supply returns 

• Skin & Aging

  • Reduced ______ ______ and slower repair

  • ______ is thin → More prone to injury 

  • Reduced ______ ______ → worse temperature control

• Skin & Aging

  • Reduced blood supply and slower repair

  • Epidermis is thin → More prone to injury 

  • Reduced sweat glands → worse temperature control

Types of Bones

• Long Bones: (visual description)

  • Epiphysis: ______________________

  • Diaphysis: ______________________

  • Medullary Canal: ______________________

  • Ex. _________

• Short Bones: (visual description)

  • Ex. _________

Types of Bones

• Long Bones: Long & Slender 

  • Epiphysis: The part at the two ends of the bone 

  • Diaphysis: The middle part of the bone (shaft)

  • Medullary Canal: The open area running through the center of the shaft (Marrow Cavity)

  • Ex. Humerus 

• Short Bones: Smaller & box-like 

  • Ex. Wrist bones 

Types of Bones

• Flat Bones: _____________________

  • Ex. __________

• Irregular: _____________________

  • Ex. __________

Types of Bones

• Flat Bones: Thin, jagged edge where two flat bones meet

  • Ex. In the skull

• Irregular: Complex shapes 

  • Ex. Vertebrae 

Sesamoid (definition & example)

• Subset of irregular bones that are floating 

  • Ex. Patella/knee cap

Surface Anatomy of a Bone

• Projection/Process: ___________________

• Articular: ___________________

• Tubercle/Tuberosity: ___________________

• Condyle: ___________________

• Spine: ___________________

Surface Anatomy of a Bone

• Projection/Process: Part of a bone that sticks out

• Articular: Where two bones meet

• Tubercle/Tuberosity: A projection

• Condyle: Smooth & round articular process

• Spine: Pointed process

Surface Anatomy of a Bone

• Fossa: ___________________

• Ramus: ___________________

• Head: ___________________ (has to be a ____ bone & usually ____)

• Neck: ___________________

• Facet: ___________________

• Fossa: Shallow depression (Ex. Cup for hip joint)

• Ramus: Extension of a bone forming an angle 

• Head: An extension of Epiphysis (Has to be a long bone & usually rounded)

• Neck: Connection between the epiphysis and diaphysis 

• Facet: Small flat articular surface 

Spongy (Trabecular) bone vs. Compact (Cortical) bone

• Spongy:

  • Type of matrix: _______________

  • Type of force: _______________

  • (Inside/Outside) of the bone 

• Compact: 

  • Osteon: _______________________

  • (Inside/Outside) of the bone 

Spongy (Trabecular) bone vs. Compact (Cortical) bone

• Spongy:

  • Very branched matrix (Branches called trabeculae) 

  • Handles multidirectional force

  • On the inside of the bone 

• Compact: 

  • Osteon: Functional unit that creates a cylinder of compact bone 

  • On the outside of the bone

Osteon: ________________________

• Structure: ________________________

• Arranged: ________________________

• Matrix:

  • ___% Inorganic, Calcium phosphate, Calcium Carbonate.

  • ___% Organic, gel and collagen fibers

Osteon: Functional Unit of Compact Bone

• Structure: One inside another inside another

• Arranged: parallel to the long axis of the bone

• Matrix:

  • 65% Inorganic, Calcium phosphate, Calcium Carbonate.

  • 35% Organic, gel and collagen fibers

Parts of the Osteon

• Lamellae: ___________________________

• Collagen Fibers: ________________________

Parts of the Osteon

• Lamellae: Making up osteons (each “paper towel role”) 

• Collagen Fibers: Alternate directions w/ each lamellae (Strengthens the osteon)

Parts of the Osteon

• Lacunae: ______________________________

• Canaliculi: ______________________________

• Haversian Canals = _____________

• Volkman’s Canals = _____________

  • Atomic structures in (compact/spongy) bone that contain ______ ______, including both veins and arteries, to provide _______ to the bone tissue 

Parts of the Osteon

• Lacunae: Where the osteocytes are located 

• Canaliculi: Tiny tunnels that connect lacunae to the central Haversian canals (allows for nutrient/waste transport)

• Haversian Canals = central canal

• Volkman’s Canals = perforating canal

  • Atomic structures in compact bone that contain blood vessels, including both veins and arteries, to provide nutrients to the bone tissue 

Periosteum: (Location in relation to bone)

• Outer Fibrous Layer:

  • What kind of CT: _________________

  • Contains: _________________

  • Function: _________________

• Inner Osteogenic Layer:

  • Contains: _________________

  • Function: _________________

Periosteum: Surround outer surfaces of bone

• Outer Fibrous Layer:

  • What kind of CT: Dense irregular connective tissue

  • Contains: Fibroblasts, collagen fibers, blood vessels, and nerves

  • Function: Protective barrier and an anchor point

• Inner Osteogenic Layer:

  • Contains: Contains elastic fibers, blood vessels, and bone cells (such as osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts)

  • Function: Essential for bone growth and healing

(Periosteum surrounds outer surfaces of bone)

5 Functions: ___________________

(Periosteum surrounds outer surfaces of bone)

5 Functions: PAPIC

• Participates in bone growth

• Attaches bone to CT of deep fascia

• Provides place for attachments

• Isolates/protects bones

• Circulatory and nervous supply

Endosteum

• Location in relation to bone: __________________________

• Active during _______ and _______

• (Does/Does not) form a complete lining so that _________________________

Endosteum

• Location in relation to bone: Lines inner surface of bone (lining of marrow cavity)

• Active during growth and regeneration

• Does not form a complete lining so that the exposed areas are accessible to osteoblasts / osteoclasts

  • Holes make bone accessible for bone growth/breakdown 

Bone Cells (BONE = _________)

• Osteocytes: _____________________

  • Function: ___________

  • Location: ___________

• Osteoblasts: ________________________

  • Osteogenesis: _____________________

• Osteoclasts: _____________________

  • Osteolysis: _____________________

• Osteoprogenitor: _____________________

Bone Cells (BONE = OSTEO)

• Osteocytes: Mature Bone Cells

  • Helps maintain the cell matrix & monitor its composition 

  • Housed in the lacunae 

• Osteoblasts: Secretes new bone 

  • Osteogenesis: Process of creating new bones 

• Osteoclasts: Breaks bone down 

  • Osteolysis: Process of breaking bone down 

• Osteoprogenitor: Differentiates into other cells to help with bone generation or breakdown 

4 Factors affecting Deposition and Resorption of Bone: _________________

• Bone Density is (static/dynamic)

Factors affecting Deposition and Resorption of Bone (DAHM)

• Diet (Vitamin D, Calcium) 

• Age

• Hormones (Thyroid and Parathyroid gland)

• Mechanical Stress (exercise)

Bone Density is dynamic = ever changing

Bone Formation and Bone Growth:

• Intramembranous ossification:

• Endochondral ossification:

• Appositional Growth:

Bone Formation and Bone Growth:

• Intramembranous ossification

  • (Bone formation)

  • Becomes spongy because it’s trapping blood vessels (parts of the bone with no bone)

• Endochondral ossification

  • Bone develops from cartilage 

  • (Bone formation)

• Appositional Growth

  • (Increasing bone diameter) 

Endochondral Ossification: _____________________

• Step 1:

• Step 2: 

Endochondral Ossification: Multistep process in which bone forms out of cartilage

• Step 1: The Mold Grows

  • The cartilage model gets bigger.

  • Cartilage cells in the center expand and then die off, leaving behind open spaces.

• Step 2: The Bone Collar

  • Blood vessels wrap around the outside of the cartilage model.

  • Cells on the outer edge turn into bone-building cells (osteoblasts) and create a hard bone collar around the middle.

Endochondral Ossification: _____________________________

• Step 3:

• Step 4:

Endochondral Ossification: Multistep process in which bone forms out of cartilage

• Step 3: The Primary Center

  • Blood vessels break into the center of the cartilage, bringing osteoblasts with them

  • This creates the primary center of ossification, where the dead cartilage core is replaced with spongy bone

• Step 4: The Marrow Tunnel

  • Bone-destroying cells (osteoclasts) carve out a hollow medullary cavity (the marrow tunnel) down the center.

  • The bone begins growing longer at both ends, leaving just a little cartilage behind at the boundaries (metaphysis)

Endochondral Ossification: _______________________

• Step 5:

• Step 6:

Endochondral Ossification: Multistep process in which bone forms out of cartilage

• Step 5: The Ends (Secondary Centers)

  • Blood vessels enter the epiphyses (the top and bottom tips of the bone).

  • These become secondary centers of ossification, where osteoblasts begin replacing the cartilage tips with spongy bone.

• Step 6: The Final Cleanup

  • The tips fill up with bone, leaving cartilage in only on the outer joint surfaces (cushion) and a slice in the middle (growth plate)

endochondral ossification vs intramembranous ossification

Intramembranous ossification creates bone directly from embryonic connective tissue, while endochondral ossification replaces a hyaline cartilage template with bone

• Intramembranous forms flat bones of the skull, the mandible (lower jaw), and the clavicles (collarbones), while Endochondral does most of the others

Appositional Growth: ___________________

• What accelerates the process:

Osteolysis: ___________________

Appositional growth: Not a form of bone development, just makes them wider/thicker

• Vessels accelerate the process 

Osteolysis: At the same time as we increase in diameter, our medullary cavity is also increasing from the inside out through osteolysis, making the bones hollow so we can move around 

• Articulation: _____________

• Joint: _____________

• Continuum of joints: _____________

• Articulation: Joint

• Joint: Where two bones meet

• Continuum of joints: From stable with good boney fit and tight ligaments (ankle) to joints that are freely moveable with loose ligaments (shoulder)

Types of Joints based on FUNCTION:

• _________: No movement

  • Subtypes: __________________________

• _________: Little movement

  • Subtypes: __________________________

• _________: “free” movement

  • Subtype: _________

Types of Joints:

• Synarthrosis: No movement

  • Subtypes: Bony fusion, Cartilaginous, Fibrous

• Amphiarthrosis: Little movement

  • Subtypes: Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial

• Diarthrosis: “free” movement

  • Subtype: Synovial

Types of Joints based on STRUCTURE:

• Bony fusion: _______________________

• Fibrous joint: _______________________

• Cartilaginous joint: _______________________

• Synovial joint: _______________________

Types of Joints based on STRUCTURE:

• Bony fusion:

  • Two bones fuse together

  • Ex. Sutures (where the skull bones fuse) 

• Fibrous joint: 

  • Connective tissue holding it together 

  • Can be synarthrotic (sutures) or amphiarthrotic (ligaments) 

• Cartilaginous joint: 

  • Allows little or no movement between bones

  • Held together by cartilage

• Synovial joint: 

  • Diarthrotic (Ex. Knee joint)

  • Surrounded/held together by the joint capsule and also held together by ligaments 

Synovial Joint

• Surrounded by: _______________

• Articular cartilage: _____________________

• Joint cavity: __________________

• Fibrocartilage pads & Fat Pads: __________________________

Synovial Joint

• Surrounded by: Joint capsule

• Articular cartilage: On either end of the bones articulating at that joint 

• Joint cavity: The space in the joint 

• Fibrocartilage pads & Fat Pads: Little sections of cartilage both used to reduce friction 

Synovial Joint

• Synovial membrane: ____________________________

• Synovial fluid: _________________________

• Ligaments: (3 Types)

Synovial Joint

• Synovial membrane: Lines the cavity 

  • Stops and never makes contact with the cartilage 

• Synovial fluid

  • Fills the joint cavity to lubricate, nourish chondrocytes, and absorb shock 

  • Hyaluronan (glycosaminoglycans) & lubricin (protein)

• Ligaments:

  • Extrinsic: Outside the joint capsule 

  • Intrinsic: Housed within the joint 

  • Capsular: Thickening of the joint capsule 

Structural classification of synovial joints

• Gliding joint:

  • Type of Movement:

  • Planes of Movement:

  • Ex.

• Hinge joint:

  • Type of Movement:

  • Planes of Movement:

  • Ex.

Structural classification of synovial joints

• Gliding joint:

  • Type of Movement: Linear (Slides forward/back & left/right)

  • Planes of Movement: 2

  • Ex. where clavicle meets breast bone

• Hinge joint:

  • Type of Movement: Angular (Open & close like a door)

  • Planes of Movement: 1

  • Ex. Ankle point & flex 

Structural classification of synovial joints

• Pivot Joint:

  • Type of Movement:

  • Planes of Movement:

  • Ex.

• Ellipsoidal (Condyloid) Joint:

  • Type of Movement

  • Planes of Movement:

  • Ex.

Structural classification of synovial joints

• Pivot Joint:

  • Type of Movement: Uniaxial rotation

  • Planes of Movement: 1

  • Ex. Shaking head no 

• Ellipsoidal (Condyloid) Joint:

  • Type of Movement: Angular motion (Oval surface in a shallow depression)

  • Planes of Movement: 2

  • Ex. Where wrist bones meet forearm bone 

Structural classification of synovial joints

• Saddle Joint:

  • Type of Movement:

  • Planes of Movement:

  • Ex.

• Ball & Socket Joint:

  • Type of Movement:

  • Planes of Movement:

  • Ex.

Structural classification of synovial joints

• Saddle Joint:

  • Type of Movement: Angular (Concave on convex)

  • Planes of Movement: 2

  • Ex. Base of the thumb in the palm of the hand 

• Ball & Socket Joint:

  • Type of Movement: Multidirectional rotation (Round head in a cup)

  • Planes of Movement: All 3

  • Ex. Hip

Common Joint Diseases (“ITIS” = ___________)

• Bursitis: _________________________

• Synovitis: _________________________

Common Joint Diseases (“ITIS” = inflammation)

• Bursitis: too much friction causes sac to become inflamed

• Synovitis: Inflammation of the synovial membrane

Common Joint Diseases (“ITIS” = inflammation)

• Arthritis: _______________________

  • Osteoarthritis: _______________________

  • Rheumatoid: _______________________

Common Joint Diseases (“ITIS” = inflammation)

• Arthritis: inflammation of the joint 

  • Osteoarthritis: Joint degrading from wear & tear 

    • Aka degenerative joint disease 

    • Wears down so it’s bone on bone contact 

  • Rheumatoid: Swelling at the joint 

    • Leads to inflammation of the synovial membrane 

    • Knobby appearance 

    • Autoimmune condition 

Arthritis with degradation of hyaline cartilage

• Hyaline cartilage wears away and leads to _____________ which causes _____________

Arthritis with degradation of hyaline cartilage

• Hyaline cartilage wears away and leads to bone to bone contact which causes bone spurs 

Options:

• Medullary Cavity

• Metaphysis

• Synovial membrane

• Compact Bone

• Articular cartilages

• Spongy bone

• Periosteum

• Joint Cavity

• Fibrous Joint Capsule

Knee Joint = (also called) 

• Largest ________ joint in the body 

Bones included: ________________

Joints included:

• ______________: (structure type)

• ______________: (structure type)

Knee Joint = GENU 

• Largest synovial joint in the body 

Bones included: Femur, tibia, patella

Joints included:

• Tibiofemoral Joint: Modified condolyte 

• Patellofemoral joint: Gliding