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Give some basic facts about Antarctica:
It is the coldest, windiest and driest place on Earth
It has no permanent population
It’s ice covers 97% of the land and contains 70% of the world’s fresh water
It is 60x bigger than the UK
Describe Antarctica’s climate:
Temperature: Average of -50 degrees Celsius but can reach -89
Wind speed: Mean of 50mph from convergent katabatic winds; gales can reach 200 mph
Precipitation: Less than 50 mm annually
Land height: Average of 2.5 km above sea level
Describe the geography of Antarctica:
The eastern ‘half’ is much bigger and the ice sheet that covers it is larger, thicker and older than the western ‘half’
It is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains
Most research stations are on the Antarctic Peninsula, reaching into the Weddell Sea
Give some general reasons for the importance of Antarctica:
Home to many rare species
Vital for regulating the climate
Extreme conditions are useful for scientific research
Describe the ecology of Antarctica:
Home to 7 species of penguin and 4 species of albatross
The albatrosses take 10 years to sexually mature and lay an egg every 2 years - they are vulnerable to extinction
It is also home to a large volume of krill, whales, seals birds and plankton
How has sealing impacted Antarctica?
It began in the 18th century, and by 1800, the fur seals had been wiped out, moving interest to the South Shetlands, where they killed 300,000 seals
In 1972, the Antarctic Convention banned the killing of Ross and Antarctic fur seals
How has whaling impacted Antarctica?
Began in the 19th century and the main targets were Blue and Right whales
There was demand of whalebone, oil, meat, and other products
As populations in the N. Atlantic, interest turned to the Southern Ocean, mainly from the UK, US and Norway
Camps were based in S. Georgia and the S. Sandwich Islands
In 1904, Norway built Grytviken, which employed 300 people until it’s closure in 1965
How has scientific research impacted Antarctica?
Seasonal and year-round bases are run by 30 nations
Snow traps a lot of interesting stuff e.g. volcanic ash and radioactive materials
Ice core drilling is key to environmental research
How has resource exploitation impacted Antarctica?
The Antarctic contains the world’s largest known coalfield
Freshwater can be abstracted from the ice caps
There is money to be made from sea life e.g. fish and krill
Interest in resource exploitation threatens Antarctica’s fragile environment
How has climate change impacted Antarctica?
A 100-mile long crack is forming across the Larson C ice shelf
If it collapses, an area the size of Delaware (10% of the shelf) will break off and the rest of the shelf will become more unstable
Ocean temperatures have risen by 1 degree Celsius since 1955
Emperor penguins have declined by 50% as sea ice melts (where they breed)
It is vulnerable to climate change, as well as important in slowing the change
Describe tourism on Antarctica:
There are 3 main types:
Cruise ships
Over-flights
Camping trips
Tourism has risen from <2000 in the 80s to >45,000 in 2017
The most tourists come from the US, Australia and Germany
The cost can range from $6000 to$18,000
Give some positive impacts of tourism on Antarctica:
Tourists become “ambassadors” for Antarctica and it’s protection as they feel a stronger connection to it
They tend to be wealthier and more educated people with a bigger voice when it comes to activism
Give some negative impacts of tourism on Antarctica:
Invasive species brought to the vulnerable ecosystems (e.g. bacteria or seeds)
Peak tourist season collides with bird breeding season and it may make the birds anxious
Erosion/disturbance of fragile environments - footprints can remain on moss for decades
Oil spills and noise pollution
Enforcing regulations is difficult
What has research found on the impacts of tourism on Antarctica?
The Scott Polar Institute found that tourism on Antarctica is:
A well-run industry
Guidelines are followed and companies that don’t follow them quickly go bust
Research stations leave more litter than tourists
Of 200 landing sites, only 5% showed signs of wear and tear
Animals were largely unaffected by tourists
How is tourism on Antarctica managed?
The IAATO ensures safe travel especially when tourists come ashore
The Linblad Plan manages cruise itineraries to spread out visits and their impacts
The Polar Code outlines behaviour ashore and health + safety requirements
Describe the rise of adventure tourism on Antarctica:
In the 80s and 90s, the average age of visitors was middle-aged/elderly and they didn’t come ashore
Nowadays visitors are getting younger and they want to do activities e.g. water-skiing, paragliding and scuba-diving
Describe the increase in the proportion of Chinese tourists on Antarctica:
Chinese citizens made up 12% of visitors in 2017, including in cruises and flights that cost ~£16,000
They are now the 2nd biggest nationality to visit
China’s new regulations monitor visitors and damaging the environment can lead to a 3-year ban from visiting
How has mineral exploitation impacted Antarctica?
Minerals such as uranium, silver, gold, titanium, cobalt, iron and copper are abundant on Antarctica
It is very inaccessible currently, making exploitation unprofitable
How has fishing impacted Antarctica?
The Antarctic Convergence is where the Southern Ocean meets warmer waters, causing upwelling of nutrients, so it is an area rich in marine life
Russian ships began exploiting cod in the 60s
There is lots of concern over krill fishing (popular as a health food) as it underpins the whole food web
Long-line fishing of the Patagonian Toothfish killed lots of storm petrels and albatrosses as they got caught in the lines
Millions of tonnes of finfish were caught but the CCAMLR banned fishing of most species in the 80s
Describe the IWC and it’s impacts:
The International Whaling Convention was formed in 1946 but came into force in 1985
Most, but not all nations agreed to stop whaling (e.g. Japan used a loophole allowing whaling for ‘research’)
It was no longer commercially viable anyway
In 1994, a 50 million km² area was established where whaling was banned
Describe CRAMRA and it’s impacts:
Regulations set up that provided a framework in which mining could occur in 1988
However many NGOs fought against this, including Greenpeace, and within 2 years the agreement collapsed, showing the power of NGOs in world affairs
Describe the Madrid protocol and it’s impacts:
Negotiated by the UN in 1991
Formed after the death of CRAMRA and outright bans mining
It also:
Designates it as a natural reserve
Subjects all prospective activities to environmental analysis
Requires people to return their waste
It was ratified in 1998
Describe the ATS and it’s impacts:
The Antarctic Treaty System is a body of agreements
The Antarctic Treaty is the main one, set up in 1959 and includes 12 nations
In it’s 14 articles it says that:
Antarctica must be used for peaceful purposes
Promotes scientific cooperation
Sets aside sovereignty disputes
Prohibits nuclear activity e.g. waste dumping
Provides for inspectors to ensure compliance
Requires advance notice of expeditions
Sets in place a mechanism for settling disputes and debate
It came into force in 1961 and is widely successful
Describe the wider ATS and it’s impacts:
It is governed by annual consultative meetings
It includes other agreements including:
The Madrid Protocol
Convention on Antarctic Seals
The CAMLR
It also includes NGOs, institutions and researchers
It has 46 signatories
Describe ASOC and it’s impacts:
The Antarctic + South Ocean Coalition is a group of 30 NGOs e.g. Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, and the WWF
It’s original aims were to:
Prevent mining
Open up the ATS to NGOs
Conclude the 1st “ecosystem as a whole” treaty on fishing
It now has observer status at the ATS and now aims to:
Make the Polar Code legally binding
Establish a network of natural reserves
Manage fisheries sustainably
Regulate tourism
Monitor Madrid Protocol implementation
Describe SCAR and it’s impacts:
The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
Aims to initiate and coordinate scientific research
It’s also an advisory body to the ATCM and IPCC
The 1st meeting was held in 1958 and has 46 members
Most members are from Europe, the Americas and eastern Asia
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