GG - Antarctica Case Study

Give some basic facts about Antarctica:

• It is the coldest, windiest and driest place on Earth

• It has no permanent population

• It’s ice covers 97% of the land and contains 70% of the world’s fresh water

• It is 60x bigger than the UK

Describe Antarctica’s climate:

• Temperature: Average of -50 degrees Celsius but can reach -89

• Wind speed: Mean of 50mph from convergent katabatic winds; gales can reach 200 mph

• Precipitation: Less than 50 mm annually

• Land height: Average of 2.5 km above sea level

Describe the geography of Antarctica:

• The eastern ‘half’ is much bigger and the ice sheet that covers it is larger, thicker and older than the western ‘half’

• It is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains

• Most research stations are on the Antarctic Peninsula, reaching into the Weddell Sea

Give some general reasons for the importance of Antarctica:

• Home to many rare species

• Vital for regulating the climate

• Extreme conditions are useful for scientific research

Describe the ecology of Antarctica:

• Home to 7 species of penguin and 4 species of albatross

• The albatrosses take 10 years to sexually mature and lay an egg every 2 years - they are vulnerable to extinction

• It is also home to a large volume of krill, whales, seals birds and plankton

How has sealing impacted Antarctica?

• It began in the 18th century, and by 1800, the fur seals had been wiped out, moving interest to the South Shetlands, where they killed 300,000 seals

• In 1972, the Antarctic Convention banned the killing of Ross and Antarctic fur seals

How has whaling impacted Antarctica?

• Began in the 19th century and the main targets were Blue and Right whales

• There was demand of whalebone, oil, meat, and other products

• As populations in the N. Atlantic, interest turned to the Southern Ocean, mainly from the UK, US and Norway

• Camps were based in S. Georgia and the S. Sandwich Islands

• In 1904, Norway built Grytviken, which employed 300 people until it’s closure in 1965

How has scientific research impacted Antarctica?

• Seasonal and year-round bases are run by 30 nations

• Snow traps a lot of interesting stuff e.g. volcanic ash and radioactive materials

• Ice core drilling is key to environmental research

How has resource exploitation impacted Antarctica?

• The Antarctic contains the world’s largest known coalfield

• Freshwater can be abstracted from the ice caps

• There is money to be made from sea life e.g. fish and krill

• Interest in resource exploitation threatens Antarctica’s fragile environment

How has climate change impacted Antarctica?

• A 100-mile long crack is forming across the Larson C ice shelf

• If it collapses, an area the size of Delaware (10% of the shelf) will break off and the rest of the shelf will become more unstable

• Ocean temperatures have risen by 1 degree Celsius since 1955

• Emperor penguins have declined by 50% as sea ice melts (where they breed)

• It is vulnerable to climate change, as well as important in slowing the change

Describe tourism on Antarctica:

• There are 3 main types:

  • Cruise ships

  • Over-flights

  • Camping trips

• Tourism has risen from <2000 in the 80s to >45,000 in 2017

• The most tourists come from the US, Australia and Germany

• The cost can range from $6000 to$18,000

Give some positive impacts of tourism on Antarctica:

• Tourists become “ambassadors” for Antarctica and it’s protection as they feel a stronger connection to it

• They tend to be wealthier and more educated people with a bigger voice when it comes to activism

Give some negative impacts of tourism on Antarctica:

• Invasive species brought to the vulnerable ecosystems (e.g. bacteria or seeds)

• Peak tourist season collides with bird breeding season and it may make the birds anxious

• Erosion/disturbance of fragile environments - footprints can remain on moss for decades

• Oil spills and noise pollution

• Enforcing regulations is difficult

What has research found on the impacts of tourism on Antarctica?

The Scott Polar Institute found that tourism on Antarctica is:

• A well-run industry

• Guidelines are followed and companies that don’t follow them quickly go bust

• Research stations leave more litter than tourists

• Of 200 landing sites, only 5% showed signs of wear and tear

• Animals were largely unaffected by tourists

How is tourism on Antarctica managed?

• The IAATO ensures safe travel especially when tourists come ashore

• The Linblad Plan manages cruise itineraries to spread out visits and their impacts

• The Polar Code outlines behaviour ashore and health + safety requirements

Describe the rise of adventure tourism on Antarctica:

• In the 80s and 90s, the average age of visitors was middle-aged/elderly and they didn’t come ashore

• Nowadays visitors are getting younger and they want to do activities e.g. water-skiing, paragliding and scuba-diving

Describe the increase in the proportion of Chinese tourists on Antarctica:

• Chinese citizens made up 12% of visitors in 2017, including in cruises and flights that cost ~£16,000

• They are now the 2nd biggest nationality to visit

• China’s new regulations monitor visitors and damaging the environment can lead to a 3-year ban from visiting

How has mineral exploitation impacted Antarctica?

• Minerals such as uranium, silver, gold, titanium, cobalt, iron and copper are abundant on Antarctica

• It is very inaccessible currently, making exploitation unprofitable

How has fishing impacted Antarctica?

• The Antarctic Convergence is where the Southern Ocean meets warmer waters, causing upwelling of nutrients, so it is an area rich in marine life

• Russian ships began exploiting cod in the 60s

• There is lots of concern over krill fishing (popular as a health food) as it underpins the whole food web

• Long-line fishing of the Patagonian Toothfish killed lots of storm petrels and albatrosses as they got caught in the lines

• Millions of tonnes of finfish were caught but the CCAMLR banned fishing of most species in the 80s

Describe the IWC and it’s impacts:

• The International Whaling Convention was formed in 1946 but came into force in 1985

• Most, but not all nations agreed to stop whaling (e.g. Japan used a loophole allowing whaling for ‘research’)

• It was no longer commercially viable anyway

• In 1994, a 50 million km² area was established where whaling was banned

Describe CRAMRA and it’s impacts:

• Regulations set up that provided a framework in which mining could occur in 1988

• However many NGOs fought against this, including Greenpeace, and within 2 years the agreement collapsed, showing the power of NGOs in world affairs

Describe the Madrid protocol and it’s impacts:

• Negotiated by the UN in 1991

• Formed after the death of CRAMRA and outright bans mining

• It also:

  • Designates it as a natural reserve

  • Subjects all prospective activities to environmental analysis

  • Requires people to return their waste

• It was ratified in 1998

Describe the ATS and it’s impacts:

• The Antarctic Treaty System is a body of agreements

• The Antarctic Treaty is the main one, set up in 1959 and includes 12 nations

• In it’s 14 articles it says that:

  • Antarctica must be used for peaceful purposes

  • Promotes scientific cooperation

  • Sets aside sovereignty disputes

  • Prohibits nuclear activity e.g. waste dumping

  • Provides for inspectors to ensure compliance

  • Requires advance notice of expeditions

  • Sets in place a mechanism for settling disputes and debate

• It came into force in 1961 and is widely successful

Describe the wider ATS and it’s impacts:

• It is governed by annual consultative meetings

• It includes other agreements including:

  • The Madrid Protocol

  • Convention on Antarctic Seals

  • The CAMLR

• It also includes NGOs, institutions and researchers

• It has 46 signatories

Describe ASOC and it’s impacts:

• The Antarctic + South Ocean Coalition is a group of 30 NGOs e.g. Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, and the WWF

• It’s original aims were to:

  • Prevent mining

  • Open up the ATS to NGOs

  • Conclude the 1st “ecosystem as a whole” treaty on fishing

• It now has observer status at the ATS and now aims to:

  • Make the Polar Code legally binding

  • Establish a network of natural reserves

  • Manage fisheries sustainably

  • Regulate tourism

  • Monitor Madrid Protocol implementation

Describe SCAR and it’s impacts:

• The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research

• Aims to initiate and coordinate scientific research

• It’s also an advisory body to the ATCM and IPCC

• The 1st meeting was held in 1958 and has 46 members

• Most members are from Europe, the Americas and eastern Asia