Y12 Psych - Research Methodology

Psychology

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Quantitative

Expressed in numbers, more objective quantification

Qualitative

Expressed in words, more subjective but analysis is deep

Lab experiment

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV while maintaining strict control of extraneous variables

Lab experiment strengths

(Experiments) A standardized procedure ensures that experiments can be easily replicated, and reliability of findings & conclusions can be verified by peers

Lab experiment limitations

(Experiments) Often lacks ecological validity due to the artificial environments in which they are conducted

Field experiment

The researcher manipulates the IV and measures the DV, but conducts the experiment in a real-life setting rather than in a lab

Field experiment strengths

(Experiments) Has ecological validity because it is conducted in a real-life setting; can verify a cause and effect relationship

Field experiment limitations

(Experiments) Less control, not repeatable due to high chance of confounding variables, ethical issues (consent)

Quasi-experiment

An experiment in which investigators make use of control and experimental groups that already exist in the world at large, no independent variable is manipulated

Quasi-experiment strengths

(Experiments) Allows comparisons between types of people, useful to allow experimenters to investigate phenomena which may be impossible or unethical to investigate otherwise

Quasi-experiment limitations

(Experiments) No cause and effect relationship can be established, other variables could influence results

Natural experiment

Researchers find naturally occurring variables (not manipulable) and study them, a type of a quasi-experiment

Natural experiment strengths

(Experiments) Behavior is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting, higher ecological validity

Natural experiment limitations

(Experiments) No cause and effect relationship can be established, other variables could influence results, ethical issues if no consent is given before the experiment

Correlational Research

Investigates relationships between two variables (or more) without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them. It's a non-experimental type of quantitative research

Correlation Coefficients (r)

Indicates the extent to which the variables are correlated, relationships can be positive, negative, or no correlation.

Correlational Research Strengths

(Research) Can help us understand complex relationships between many variables, often measured in real world settings, can help psychologists develop predictions to test in experiments

Correlational Research Limitations

(Research) Does not account for the 3rd variable problem meaning that the correlation does not mean causation

Third variable problem

The fact that a causal relationship between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them because of the ever-present possibility of this term.

Bidirectional Ambiguity

When there is a correlational relationship between two variables, and there is uncertainty about which variable is influencing which.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

3 types of research design

Independent samples, matched pairs, repeated measures

Independent samples

A study where each participants only participates in one condition in either the control of experimental group (no one is used twice)

Matched Pairs

An independent study, except people are matched to a specific characteristic that might affect performance like age or gender. Allocation into the control or experimental group will still be random

Repeated Measures

A study where each of the participants will participate in both conditions keeping everything the same except for the condition tested.

Ethics

Moral principles that govern a person's behavior or the conducting of an activity

Informed Consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. If not possible, must be justified

Debriefing

The nature, purpose, results & conclusions of the research told to participants after a study

Protection from Harm

The right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

Deception

When the aim of a study must be withheld from participants, must be justified

Confidentiality

The researcher can connect the results to a particular participant, but the results are not made public

Anonymity

No one can trace the results back to a participant's identity

Right to withdraw

A participant's right to leave a study at any time and their ability to do so

Data fabrication

Researchers may intentionally or unintentionally publish fake results to support their theory

Plagiarism

Taking credit for someone else's writing or ideas

Publication credit

Authorship on a publication should accurately reflect the relative contributions of all the authors

Sharing Research for Data Verification

All data needs to be made available so it can be analyzed and, if possible, replicated. Must be shared but kept confidential

Sensitive personal information

Research into genetics or psychological disorders may reveal important information to participants, some of which participants may not want to know

Social Implications of Reporting Scientific Results

Research into many issues can impact society and public policy

Credibility

The extent to which the study can be trusted to reflect reality

Temporal Validity

The extent to which the study can be generalized over time

Random Sampling

Sampling from a population randomly. To assure that there is minimal bias it can be doing things like taking a name out of a hat

Random Sampling: Strengths

(Sampling) Ideal approach to making the population representative. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being part of the sample. With sufficient sample size, all characteristics are covered.

Random Sampling: Limitation

(Sampling) Time consuming, not very practical, uses lots of resources, can't be used twice

Stratified Sampling

Define the characteristics of the population and study the distribution of these characteristics. Gather the sample in those same proportions

Stratified Sampling: Strengths

(Sampling) Ensures the sample is inclusive/very representative of the population to the characteristics you chose. Allows you to control who will be studied

Stratified Sampling: Limitations

(Sampling) Difficult to accurately stratify, won't be enough people. Potential confounding variables. Some people drop out of the study which makes the proportions wrong. Some people may also withdraw their results. Requires knowledge of the characteristics of the target population

Convenience (Opportunity) Sampling

Recruiting people who are conveniently there to quickly get volunteers

Convenience Sampling: Strengths

(Sampling) Easy to access, fast, cheap, time efficient, useful when the characteristics of a sample are not relevant to the concept studied for example, memory

Convenience Sampling: Limitations

(Sampling) Often the sample is not diverse enough to generalize. Some of them might be familiar with the procedures and guess the aim of the study resulting in Demand Characteristics

Self Selected Sampling

Recruiting volunteers through mediums like adverts. This allows for quick recruitment and also a wide coverage as ads will probably reach a lot of people

Self Selected Sampling: Strengths

(Sampling) Quick easy way to recruit while having wide coverage

Self Selected Sampling Limitations

(Sampling) Lower population validity, demand characteristics might influence the results

Selection Bias

Occurs when the people who are research participants are selected in a way that does not make them representative of the population that the study wants the results to apply to

History Bias

Outside events that happened to the participants before the experiment. They present another unexpected variable into the equation which can skew the results. To prevent this all the conditions of both groups should be the exact same

Maturation Bias

When in the course of the experiment the participants go through natural developments like fatigue or growth. For example a training course over several months may yield results but it could also be because the people taking the results matured

Testing Effect Bias

First effect of the DV affects the second measurement. For example if you take the same test twice to test for change, the change might be due to the fact that you are more familiar with the format

Instrumentation Bias

When the measuring tool to measure the DV is slightly changed for example, when the observer is recording group 1 at breakfast then group 2 at lunch, the researcher may be more tired and miss something during lunch

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with one's existing beliefs

Regression to the mean

The fact that people on the extremes have a tendency to regress to the middle. For example if I choose people with high anxiety, they are more likely to become less anxious naturally than a normally anxious person because they are already at the "peak"

Experimental Mortality

When people drop out of experiments in a not random fashion. For example, if one group chooses to drop out due to the sensitive topics being asked it makes the groups unbalanced.

Demand Characteristics

When the participant understands the aim of the experiment and changes their behavior subconsciously to fit the interpretation. This can happen for many reasons including wanting to be seen as socially desirable or well liked

Experimenter Bias

When the researcher unintentionally influences participant behavior and results of experiment

4 Types of Validity of Generalization

Construct Validity, External Validity, Ecological Validity, Population Validity

Construct Validity

The quality of operationalization which is the process of trying to measure or quantify a construct. Ex. construct = aggression, operationalization = hours of watching violent TV. The more it is justifiable it is the higher the construct validity

External Validity

The extent to which you can generalize the findings of a study to other situations, people, settings and measures. Can you apply the findings of your study to a broader context? Includes generalizability and applicability.

Mundane Realism

Describes the degree to which the materials and procedures involved in an experiment are similar to events that occur in the real world. More about the PROCEDURE itself. PART OF EXTERNAL VALIDITY!

Ecological Validity

The extent to which the experiment can represent a realistic setting or can be applied to real life. More about the ENVIRONMENT the study takes place in. PART OF EXTERNAL VALIDITY!

Population Validity

The extent to which findings can be generalized to a larger population. Unquantifiable by objective standards. PART OF EXTERNAL VALIDITY!

Internal Validity

The degree of confidence that the causal relationship being tested is trustworthy and not influenced by other factors or variables

Holism vs. Reductionism

View the big picture vs. divide explanations into parts

Holism

Gain understanding of the whole in all its complexity: claims that the whole is bigger than the sum of its parts vs. explain a complex phenomenon by its constituent parts. It may be understood as reducing the whole to its parts

Reductionism

The principle that the whole can be best understood by examining its parts individually