Biological Approach - Cambridge International AS Level Psychology

Comprehensive Question and Answer flashcards covering all three core studies (Dement and Kleitman, Hassett et al., Hölzel et al.) and main assumptions of the Biological Approach for Cambridge International AS Level Psychology.

What are the two main assumptions of the Biological approach in psychology?

1. Behaviour, cognitions, and emotions can be explained in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of hormones, genetics, and evolution.
2. Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interaction with other factors.

What 'other factors' do biological psychologists acknowledge interact with biological factors to influence behaviour, cognitions, and emotions?

Environmental, social, and/or cultural factors.

How do biological psychologists view non-biological influences on human behaviour?

They do not ignore other influences (such as environmental, social, or cultural factors), but their primary focus remains on the impact of biological factors.

What state is the body in during sleep, and what happens to conscious awareness?

During sleep, the body is inactive and conscious awareness is temporarily halted.

Which equipment is used to identify the five sleep stages, and what does this image show regarding brain wave activity?

Electroencephalography (EEG). It measures electrical activity in the brain to monitor time spent in different sleep stages such as Awake, Stage 1 NREM (Theta), Stage 2 NREM (Sleep spindle, K-complex), Stage 3,4 NREM (Delta), and REM.

How are sleep Stages 1 and 2 characterized?

They represent light sleep where the individual is easily woken.

How do brain waves in sleep Stages 3 and 4 compare to those in Stages 1 and 2?

Stages 3 and 4 represent deeper sleep, and their brain waves have higher amplitude and lower frequency than brain waves in Stages 1 and 2.

What are the physiological and neurological characteristics of Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep?

Brain waves have lower amplitude and higher frequency (similar to wakefulness), eyelids move quickly while other muscles are paralysed, and dreaming is common.

What is an ultradian rhythm?

An ultradian rhythm is a bodily cycle that repeats more than once every $24\text{-hour}$ period.

How long is a typical sleep cycle during the night?

We move through several $90\text{-minute}$ sleep cycles throughout the night.

How does the proportion of REM versus NREM sleep change throughout the night?

Earlier in the night, cycles include a higher proportion of non-REM (NREM) sleep, whereas later in the night, more time is spent in stages 1, 2, and REM sleep.

How are dreams defined in the Dement and Kleitman study?

Dreams are defined as subjective memories of our experiences during sleep.

Who used an EEG in 1953 to identify REM and NREM sleep, and who was his researcher advisor?

Aserinsky used an EEG in 1953 under his student-advisor relationship with Kleitman.

What finding did Kleitman and Aserinsky report regarding waking participants in REM versus NREM sleep?

They found that people woken in REM sleep are more likely to report dreams than those woken in NREM sleep.

What was the overall goal of Dement and Kleitman regarding measuring dreaming?

They wanted to find a reliable and objective way to measure whether a person is dreaming using biological evidence rather than verbal self-reports.

What was Aim 1 of the Dement and Kleitman study?

To investigate whether dream recall is more common in REM than in NREM sleep.

What was Aim 2 of the Dement and Kleitman study?

To investigate whether participants can accurately estimate the duration of their dreams.

What was Aim 3 of the Dement and Kleitman study?

To investigate whether eye movements (vertical/horizontal) correspond with dream content.

What was Aim 4 of the Dement and Kleitman study?

To investigate whether there is a correlation between the duration of a REM sleep episode and the number of words (the narrative) used to describe any dreams experienced.

What research design and methods were used for Aims 1–3 and Aim 4 in Dement and Kleitman?

For Aims 1–3, an experiment with a repeated measures design was used. For Aim 4, a correlational design was used.

What data collection techniques were utilized in Dement and Kleitman?

Self-report and interview techniques.

What were the independent variables in the Dement and Kleitman study?

1. Whether participants were woken during REM or NREM sleep (shown by EEG).
2. Whether woken following $5$ or $15\text{-minute}$ periods of REM sleep.
3. Whether woken following REM sleep with mainly vertical, mainly horizontal, mixed, or limited eye movements.

How was a dream report operationalised as quantitative data in Aim 1 of Dement and Kleitman?

Whether a dream was reported or not; the dream had to be described in detail to be counted.

How was the perceived duration of a dream measured after the procedure was modified in Dement and Kleitman?

Participants were asked a fixed/forced choice question on whether they had been dreaming for $5$ or $15\text{-minute}$ durations.

What was the sample size and demographic background of participants in Dement and Kleitman?

Nine participants total (seven men, two women) from Chicago, USA.

How many participants were studied in depth versus studied to confirm results in Dement and Kleitman?

Five participants were studied in depth, and four were studied to confirm the results.

Where did participants sleep during the Dement and Kleitman study, and where was the EEG machine located?

Participants slept in a quiet, dark room at the University of Chicago, with the EEG machine located in an adjoining room.

Where were electrodes attached on participants in Dement and Kleitman, and how were wires managed?

Electrodes were placed near the eyes and on the scalp, and wires were tied together to stop them from becoming tangled.

How did researchers collect self-reports from participants upon awakening in Dement and Kleitman?

Participants self-reported using a bedside recording device while researchers listened from the adjoining room.

What rule did experimenters strictly follow when interviewing participants about dream content?

They never revealed information about sleep stage or direction of eye movements when questioning the participants.

What dietary controls were imposed on participants on the day of the Dement and Kleitman experiment?

All participants abstained from alcohol and caffeine on the day of the study.

What standard awakening signal was used for all participants in Dement and Kleitman?

The same loud doorbell was used for all awakenings.

How was confidentiality maintained for participants in Dement and Kleitman?

Participants were referred to using their initials, and dream content was not paired with their initials.

Did REM sleep ever occur immediately after sleep onset in the Dement and Kleitman study?

No, REM sleep never occurred immediately after sleep onset.

What was the average sleep cycle interval and average REM sleep duration in Dement and Kleitman?

One REM period occurred every $92\text{-minute}$ cycle (range $70\text{--}104\text{-minute}$), with an average REM duration of $20\text{-minute}$ (range $3\text{--}50\text{-minute}$).

What percentage of awakenings from REM sleep versus NREM sleep yielded dream reports?

REM sleep awakenings yielded $80FRQ_1$ dream reports ($80\text{\%}$), whereas NREM sleep awakenings yielded $7\text{\%}$ dream reports.

What was the accuracy rate of dream duration estimates following 5 minutes versus 15 minutes of REM sleep?

The accuracy rate was $88\text{\%}$ after $5\text{-minute}$ of REM and $78\text{\%}$ after $15\text{-minute}$ of REM.

What unique result was observed for participant DN regarding dream duration estimation?

Participant DN had a lower accuracy rate of only $65\text{\%}$ because he underestimated dream length and was only correct $50\text{\%}$ of the time when woken after $15\text{-minute}$.

What dream contents were reported by participants experiencing mainly vertical eye movements?

Looking up and down while: operating a hoist at the bottom of a cliff where people were climbing, climbing a series of ladders, or throwing basketballs into a net.

What dream content was associated with mainly horizontal eye movements?

Watching two people throwing tomatoes at each other.

What dream contents were associated with mixed eye movements?

Talking in a group of people, searching for something, or fighting with someone.

What dream content was associated with limited eye movement?

Looking into the distance while driving a car.

What were the range and average correlation coefficients for REM duration and length of dream report in Dement and Kleitman?

Correlation coefficients ranged from $+0.40$ to $+0.71$, with an average of $+0.58$.

State the four main conclusions of the Dement and Kleitman study.

1. Dreams are more likely to be reported in REM than NREM sleep.
2. Dreams are experienced in real time (dream length and REM sleep duration match).
3. Eye movements in sleep are not random; they match dream content.
4. The subjective experience of dreaming can be measured objectively using EEG to identify REM sleep.

What was a main methodological weakness affecting validity in Dement and Kleitman?

Some data was discarded because recordings were too muffled and dreams could not be accurately transcribed.

What sample limitation was identified regarding generalisations in Dement and Kleitman?

Only nine people were studied (and only five in detail), and ages and occupations were not provided, meaning individual differences may have affected results.

How do findings from Dement and Kleitman support the nature side of the nature-nurture debate?

All participants demonstrated ultradian REM/NREM sleep cycles and dreamed more during REM than NREM, suggesting these patterns are innate and may help us survive.

How do findings from Dement and Kleitman support the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate?

Dream content was diverse, demonstrating that differing life experiences affect what we dream about and may affect the duration of REM sleep.

How is play defined in the Hassett et al. study on rhesus monkeys?

Play is a universal, voluntary behaviour observed in the young of most species with activities often similar to adult behaviours, and it may be adaptive.

What sex differences in toy preferences are typically observed in human infants with XX versus XY chromosomes?

XY boys typically prefer cars to dolls, whereas XX girls typically show the reverse preference.

What belief about socialisation and toy preferences did Hassett et al. seek to investigate?

The belief that differences are due to society's differing expectations of girls and boys learned through socialisation, whereas Hassett et al. believed biological factors are also important.

How do sex hormones influence toy preferences according to Hassett et al.?

Sex hormones (e.g. testosterone, oestrogen) affect brain development, which may explain why boys and girls prefer toys that can be played with in different ways.

What background research on congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) influenced Hassett et al.?

XX girls with CAH prefer stereotypically masculine toys, even when encouraged to play with stereotypically feminine toys.

Why did Hassett et al. hypothesize that sex differences in toy preferences are determined by nature more than nurture?

Because rhesus monkeys show similar masculine/feminine toy preferences as humans and are not affected by societal expectations about gender-appropriate behaviour.

What were the two aims of the Hassett et al. study?

1. To investigate sex differences in monkey toy preferences when presented with a stereotypically feminine toy and a stereotypically masculine toy.
2. To provide support for the role of nature (not nurture) in shaping sex differences in human toy preferences.

What research method, design, and data collection technique were used in Hassett et al.?

An experiment with an independent measures design, using seven $25\text{-minute}$ controlled, non-participant, covert observations of monkeys analyzed with a behavioural checklist on video recordings.

What were the independent and dependent variables in Hassett et al.?

Independent Variable: Whether the monkey was male or female. Dependent Variable: Whether monkeys spend longer (in seconds) interacting with the wheeled toy or the plush toy.

What additional information about the monkeys was recorded during observations in Hassett et al.?

Age (juvenile, adult) and social rank (determined through observation of grooming).

What was the initial sample size in Hassett et al., and which monkeys were excluded?

Initial size: $135$ monkeys. Excluded: $14$ monkeys (due to previous participation in hormone research) and $39$ infants (because they looked too alike to accurately record sex).

How many monkeys were included in the final analysis of Hassett et al., and what was the inclusion criterion?

$23$ females and $11$ males who interacted with the toys at least five times.

What demographic history did the monkey troop have in Hassett et al.?

The monkey troop had lived together at a research centre for $25\text{-year}$ years.

What sampling technique was used in Hassett et al.?

Opportunity sampling.

Give two examples of paired wheeled and plush toys used in Hassett et al.

Wagon/teddy and truck/Scooby-Doo.

How were unclear monkey behaviours handled by observers during coding in Hassett et al.?

Unclear behaviours were discussed between the two observers.

Where were monkeys kept while toys were being placed in the enclosure in Hassett et al.?

Monkeys were kept indoors while toys were positioned.

What distance control was used between toys in Hassett et al.?

Toys were placed $10\text{\,m}$ apart.

How was toy positioning counterbalanced in Hassett et al.?

Toy positions were counterbalanced regarding whether wheeled/plush toys were on the right or left side of the enclosure.

What housing standards were provided for the monkeys in Hassett et al.?

A $25\text{\,m}^2$ outdoor enclosure with a temperature-controlled indoor area, constant access to water, daily monkey chow, and fresh fruit and vegetables.

Which ethical committee regulated the Hassett et al. study?

The Emory University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

What percentage breakdown of toy preferences was observed for male monkeys in Hassett et al.?

$73\text{\%}$ preferred wheeled toys, $9\text{\%}$ preferred plush toys, and $18\text{\%}$ showed no significant preference.

What percentage breakdown of toy preferences was observed for female monkeys in Hassett et al.?

$30\text{\%}$ preferred plush toys, $39\text{\%}$ preferred wheeled toys, and $30\text{\%}$ showed no significant preference.

How do the bar chart findings for human subjects compare to rhesus monkeys in toy selection?

Both show that males significantly prefer masculine over feminine toys. Female humans show a preference for feminine toys, but female monkeys show less pronounced preference difference between plush and wheeled toys.

What conclusions did Hassett et al. draw regarding biological differences and toy preferences?

Toy preferences in both humans and monkeys are influenced by hormonal sex differences that lead males and females to prefer different activities, leading to sex differences in cognition and behaviour.

What reliability strength was highlighted in the evaluation of Hassett et al.?

The well-operationalised behavioural checklist meant behaviours were consistently coded in the same way.

What validity strength was noted regarding camera placement in Hassett et al.?

The use of unobtrusive video cameras meant that behaviour was likely to be more spontaneous and unaffected by human presence.

What objectivity weakness was noted in Hassett et al.?

The researchers who analysed the videotapes were very familiar with the monkeys, which could lead to observer bias.

What sample weakness affecting generalisation was noted in Hassett et al.?

Eight of the $11$ male monkeys were juveniles, and the only high-ranking male in the troop did not interact with any of the toys.

How could the findings of Hassett et al. be applied to designing toys for girls and boys?

Empathy and language skills could be developed in boys through wheeled toys with expressive faces; visuospatial skills could be developed in girls using toys with moving parts used to create social situations (e.g. school bus with dolls).

Besides sex, what other biological/social factor in Hassett et al. affected time spent interacting with toys?

Social rank within the troop affected time spent interacting with toys.

What main advantage did using animals over humans provide in Hassett et al. regarding the nature-nurture debate?

It allowed researchers to examine biological factors (hormones) without the confounding variable of previous social and cultural learning about gender norms.

How is mindfulness defined in Hölzel et al.?

Mindfulness is a stress-reduction technique used to improve wellbeing through developing awareness of the present moment and encouraging compassionate, non-judgemental attitudes.

What is localisation of function in biological psychology?

The idea that specific brain structures are responsible for specific behaviours or cognitive processes.

What neuroimaging techniques were used in Hölzel et al. to measure structural plasticity?

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and voxel-based morphometry (VBM).

What grey matter difference had previous research found between meditators and non-meditators?

Meditators have significantly more grey matter in the hippocampus and insula than non-meditators.

What were the two aims of the Hölzel et al. study?

1. To investigate changes in GMC following an eight-week MBSR programme.
2. To identify specific brain structures that undergo change following the eight-week MBSR programme.

What research design features made Hölzel et al. a longitudinal experiment with a mixed design?

Repeated measures (scans conducted before and after an $8\text{-week}$ period) and independent measures (experimental MBSR group compared with a no-MBSR control group).

What correlational analysis was conducted in Hölzel et al.?

The correlation between the amount of time participants engaged in mindfulness practice (in minutes) and increases in GMC.

When were MRI scans conducted in Hölzel et al., and how was the 3D brain model built?

Scans were conducted two weeks before the first session and at the end of the $8\text{-week}$ programme. A 3D model was created using $128$ sagittal (top to bottom) images.

What questionnaire was used to collect self-report data on mindfulness in Hölzel et al.?

The Five Facets of Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), consisting of $39$ statements rated from $1$ ('never or very rarely true') to $5$ ('very often or always true').

What did the MBSR programme involve for the experimental group in Hölzel et al.?

Weekly $2.5\text{-hour}$ group meetings for eight weeks, one $6.5\text{-hour}$ training day, and home practice using a $45\text{-minute}$ audio recording (yoga, sitting meditation, body scanning).

What was the sample size and demographic composition of the experimental vs control group in Hölzel et al.?

Total size $33$. Experimental group: $16$ participants ($6$ males, $10$ females; mean age $38$). Control group: $17$ participants ($11$ males, $6$ females; mean age $39$).

What participant characteristics were shared across the sample in Hölzel et al.?

Right-handed, healthy adults, aged $25\text{--}55$, taking no regular medication, with limited meditation experience, recruited via opportunity sampling from MBSR courses.

How were order effects controlled in Hölzel et al.?

By using a 'no MBSR' control group to determine how much change in GMC at scan 2 was spontaneous/natural vs caused by the MBSR programme.

What ethical exclusion criteria were applied to protect participants in Hölzel et al.?

Participants with claustrophobia and/or metallic implants were excluded to protect them from psychological and physical harm caused by the MRI scanner.

What average time per day and total hours over 8 weeks did participants spend on mindfulness exercises in Hölzel et al.?

An average of $27\text{\,minutes}$ per day and $22.6\text{\,hours}$ over $8$ weeks (SD = $6.3\text{\,hours}$).

Which mindfulness exercise had the highest mean minutes spent on it during the 8 weeks in Hölzel et al.?

Body scan (Mean = $699\text{\,minutes}$, SD = $217$), compared to Yoga (Mean = $327$) and Sitting meditation (Mean = $332$).

In which three facets of mindfulness did the experimental group show significant improvement in Hölzel et al.?

Acting with awareness, observing, and non-judging.

In which specific brain structures did the experimental group show a significant increase in GMC in Hölzel et al.?

Left hippocampus, posterior cingulate cortex, temporoparietal junction, and cerebellum.

What surprising finding occurred in the control group regarding GMC in Hölzel et al.?

The control group showed a significant decrease in GMC in the posterior cingulate cortex.

Did Hölzel et al. find a significant correlation between GMC changes and time spent on mindfulness exercises?

No, there was no significant correlation between GMC changes and time spent on mindfulness exercises or FFMQ scores.