Language in the World

Kachru’s Three Circle Model (1985)

This theory highlights the globalisation of english and how different norms and varities emerge across regions.

Inner Circle

Countries where English is the native language.

Ex: USA, UK, Canada, Australia

Outer Circle

Countries where English is an official language, often due to colonization, and serves as a second language as it has historial or instituional importance. Examples include India, Nigeria, and Singapore.

Expanding Circle

Countries where English is learnt as a foreign Language.

Example: China, Japan

Schnider’s Dynamic Model of Post- Colonial English (2007)

Explains how English evolves in countries where it was first introduced through colonisation.

Foundation Stage

Introduced through trade, colonisation or migration.

Little integrations and the locals learn english only for official or functional use.

British or American English norms dominate with few local influences.

Exonormative Stabilization

English more widely used at this stage, for example, education, administrative, and elite institutions

Ex": Bangladesh

The correct model (British and or American) is still from the coloniser, despite some local integration.

Nativisation

Cultural and linguistic mixing increases which helps the language to be more local. English becomes more rooted to normal life.

Example: Indian English

Endonormative Stabilization

The country gains more independence in terms of their own English and cultural autonomy.

For example, their version of English is socially accepted and taught more. There are also codified local norms present in dictionaries, grammar books, and local books.

Ex: Singaporean English

Differentiation

The local variety of English has become fully stable, accepted, and internalized and begins to diversify internally. This stage explains how English varieties, once fully localised, begin to split into new dialects within the nation.

Ex: Indian and Nigerian English

Prescriptivism

The view that English should follow established rules of grammar, grammar and usages.

Descriptivism

The view that all varieties of language are valid.

Streven’s World Map of English (1980)

This theory exemplifies how British and American English remain dominating as the main branches of English from which other varieties descended, which demonstrates the influence of colonisation (British English) and globalisation (American English)

McArthur Circle of World English (1987)

Visual representation of the different varieties of English used around the world. It emphasises that English is not one single standard form but rather a collection of related varieties influenced by culture, region, and identity.

Centre- World Standard English

Theoretical idealized standard form of English. Represents written international English that is understood globally.

Second Layer- Recognizable Standard Varieties

British Standard English, American Standard English, Australian Standard English, Indian Standard English.

Outer Layer- Localized English

Non-standard emerging varieties of English.

Example- Hinglish, Spangish, Banglish

Varieties are often stigmatized.

Creole

Fully developed stable language.

Patois

Non-standard variety of a language. Often spoken informally, and stigmatized such as Jamaican English

David Crystal’s Theory of Global English (2003)

English is dominant due to historical and global factors. Spread is not only linguistic but also political and economical. Global English brings both opportunities and threats. Can also threaten local languages and cultures (language death or loss of identity)

Jennifer Jenkins Lingua Franca (2000)

Focuses on English used as a common language between non-natives.

Proposes that pronunciation is central to mutual intelligibility. Advocates for accepting non-standard grammar or pronunciation.

Sapir Wharf Hypothesis

The language we speak influences and possibly determines the way we think, perceive, and understand the world. This is also known as Linguistic Relativity.

Philipson Linguistic Imperialism (1992)

Criticises the global spread of English as a form of Linguistic Imperialism, where English marginalises other languages and promotes western ideologies.