(6) SECTION 6 STUDY NOTES (PRIMARY READING)

What modern event in [Hawaii, 2018] shows how tense the nuclear age still is?

The false ballistic-missile alert that caused public panic.

Why does [Serhii Plokhy] say the world is entering a "Second Nuclear Age"?

Rising nuclear threats—Kim Jong-un's tests, Putin's nuclear hints, the Skyfall accident, and U.S.-Russia withdrawal from the INF Treaty.

What two books by [Barbara Tuchman] influenced Kennedy during the Cuban Missile Crisis?

The Guns of August and The March of Folly.

What is the main thesis about [Kennedy & Khrushchev] in Nuclear Folly?

Both leaders repeatedly misread each other while also struggling over Berlin.

What fact did [Robert McNamara, 1992] learn about the Soviet presence in Cuba in 1962?

The USSR had 43,000 troops and nuclear-armed launchers unknown to the U.S.

How many Soviet personnel did the U.S. think were in Cuba during the crisis?

No more than 10,000.

What realization did this give U.S. officials like [McNamara]?

The world came far closer to nuclear war than previously understood.

Why was [John F. Kennedy] viewed as an "apprentice" when taking office in 1961?

He was the youngest elected president (43) and seen as inexperienced.

What famous line from [Kennedy's Inaugural Address, 1961] became iconic?

"Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country."

Which leader did Kennedy indirectly address when calling for a new path toward peace?

[Nikita Khrushchev].

What did the [Monroe Doctrine, 1823] declare and how was it applied in Cuba?

It opposed European interference; the U.S. used it to justify intervening against Spain in 1898.

What was the [Platt Amendment, 1901] and its effect on Cuba?

It allowed U.S. military bases and the right to intervene in Cuban affairs.

Which dictator ruled Cuba before Castro and canceled elections?

[Fulgencio Batista].

Who led the failed 1953 attack on Batista's regime?

[Fidel Castro] and [Raúl Castro].

What happened during [Castro's 1956 landing] with 81 rebels?

Only 19 survived, including Fidel, Raúl, and Che Guevara.

Why did the U.S. impose a trade embargo on Batista?

His brutal repression led the U.S. to cut off arms shipments.

What major 1961 event [Bay of Pigs / Operation Zapata] was a U.S. humiliation?

The failed invasion by 1,400 Cuban exiles after Kennedy denied air support.

Who were the three main architects of the Bay of Pigs who were removed afterward?

[Allen Dulles], [Richard Bissell], and [Gen. Lemnitzer].

Why did [Khrushchev] want Kennedy elected in 1960?

He believed Kennedy would be easier to manipulate.

What goodwill gesture did the USSR make after Kennedy's inauguration?

They released two American U-2 pilots.

What crisis dominated the 1961 Vienna Summit between [Kennedy & Khrushchev]?

The status of Berlin.

How did the 1961 Vienna Summit end for [Kennedy]?

Another defeat—Khrushchev dominated and later cut access to West Berlin except by air.

What major nuclear test did the USSR conduct during the [Berlin tank standoff, 1961]?

The detonation of Tsar Bomba (largest nuclear explosion in history).

Which communist power challenged [Khrushchev] for ideological leadership?

China, led by Zhou Enlai under Mao's militant Marxism-Leninism.

Why did [Fidel Castro] begin calling his revolution Marxist-Leninist?

To gain stronger Soviet support.

What triggered the USSR to send free weapons and personnel to Cuba for two years?

Learning the U.S. still planned to overthrow Castro.

What new U.S. missile system alarmed the Soviets in 1962?

The Minuteman ICBM (solid fuel, fast launch).

Who was blamed for Soviet missile delays and replaced?

Marshal Moskalenko → replaced by Marshal Biriuzov.

What U.S. deployment helped convince [Khrushchev] to put missiles in Cuba?

U.S. Jupiter missiles in Turkey.

What was the codename of the secret Soviet plan to deploy missiles to Cuba?

[Operation Anadyr].

Who opposed the missile plan, arguing Cuba's terrain was unsuitable?

[Anastas Mikoyan].

How many Soviets were planned for deployment under Operation Anadyr?

~44,000 troops, 1,300 civilians, plus massive equipment on 75 ships.

Who drafted the first secret proposal for missile deployment to Cuba?

[Major General Anatoly Gribkov].

Which three Soviet envoys negotiated the missile agreement with Castro?

[Sharof Rashidov], [Marshal Biriuzov], [Aleksandr Alekseev].

What did [Castro] demand in exchange for accepting missiles?

A Soviet guarantee of Cuba's defense against U.S. invasion.

Who became deputy commander of Soviet forces in Cuba for Operation Anadyr?

[Leonid Garbuz].

Which Soviet commander used the alias "Pavlov" in Cuba?

[Gen. Issa Pliev].

How did Soviet missile crews disguise themselves traveling to Cuba?

As "agricultural specialists."

Why were many early Cuban missile sites rejected?

Poor cover, weak bridges, power-grid issues, bad terrain.

What extreme measure did the USSR use to maintain secrecy while shipping troops?

Locking soldiers below deck in overcrowded, overheated holds.

How many troops did some ships carry despite being rated for 350?

Over 1,000.

What were travel conditions like for Soviet infantry en route to Cuba?

Heat, humidity, seasickness, low morale, overcrowding.

What signaled to Soviet leaders that the U.S. suspected something?

Increased U.S. aerial surveillance.

What did CIA acting director [Marshall S. Carter] report to Kennedy in 1962?

U-2 photos showed Soviet SAMs and missile launch sites in Cuba.

Which U.S. senator publicly accused the USSR of building missile bases in Cuba?

[Sen. Kenneth Keating].

What foreign-policy issue competed with Cuba for attention in 1962?

The Berlin crisis.

Who were key ExCom members advising Kennedy?

Bundy, McNamara, Robert Kennedy, Rusk, CIA + military officials.

What message did [Llewellyn Thompson] relay from Khrushchev?

To delay major action until after U.S. midterm elections.

What was [Operation Mongoose]?

U.S. sabotage and psychological operations against Castro.

What promise did Marshal [Malinovsky] give Che Guevara?

The USSR would send the Baltic Fleet if the U.S. invaded.

What threat did [Khrushchev] make if the U.S. attacked Cuba?

The USSR would attack a U.S.-allied country near Soviet borders.

What new weapons did Malinovsky recommend sending to Cuba?

Nuclear-capable bombers and more cruise missiles.

What authorization did [Gen. Pliev] not receive?

Independent authority to launch nuclear weapons.

How many reservists did Kennedy get permission to call up in Sept. 1962?

150,000.

What intelligence failure occurred while [John McCone] was on honeymoon?

Flyovers stopped, delaying missile discovery.

How many Soviet servicemen were secretly in Cuba by late 1962?

Over 40,000.

Who took command of Soviet missile forces in Cuba?

[Lt. Gen. Stepan Grechko].

What did U-2 pilot [Richard Heyser] discover in mid-October?

Photographic proof of nuclear missile sites.

What condition were Soviet launch sites in by October?

Combat-ready.

What did Kennedy ask [Ahmed Ben Bella] to tell Castro?

The U.S. would tolerate Cuba's system if it didn't host Soviet offensive weapons.

Which senator publicly embarrassed Kennedy about missiles in Cuba?

[Sen. Kenneth Keating].

What promise did Kennedy believe [Khrushchev] had broken?

Not placing offensive weapons in Cuba before the elections.

What were the two main U.S. response options considered in ExCom?

A naval quarantine or a surgical airstrike.

Why would a U.S. airstrike have been catastrophic?

Soviet missiles were already operational and could be launched from Cuba.

What Soviet missiles were becoming operational in western Cuba?

R-12 medium-range missiles.

What was discovered southwest of Havana?

IRBMs capable of striking most of the U.S.

What did [Andrei Gromyko] claim about Soviet weapons in Cuba?

That they were defensive only.

What did Kennedy announce on October 22?

A strict quarantine on offensive military shipments to Cuba.

What was Kennedy's final demand to [Khrushchev] in the speech?

"Halt and eliminate this clandestine, reckless, and provocative threat."

What goodwill gesture did the [Soviet Union] make after Kennedy's inauguration?

They released American U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers in a spy-swap.

What crisis did [Khrushchev] escalate to test Kennedy early in his presidency?

The Berlin Crisis.

Why did [Kennedy] believe Khrushchev was pressuring him on Berlin?

He thought Khrushchev viewed him as weak after the Bay of Pigs.

What two goals did [Khrushchev] hope to achieve in Berlin?

Stop East German defections and force Western powers to accept East Germany.

What did [Walter Ulbricht] want Khrushchev to approve?

Building a physical barrier (later the Berlin Wall).

What did [Kennedy] do to show U.S. resolve during the Berlin Crisis?

Increased the draft, boosted military spending, and sent more troops to Europe.

What famous standoff occurred during the crisis? [Berlin Crisis (1961)]

The tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie.

What was [Operation Anadyr] originally intended to address?

Protect Cuba from another U.S. invasion.

Why did [Khrushchev] see Cuba as strategically valuable?

It let the USSR counter U.S. missiles in Turkey and Italy.

What global move did Khrushchev believe installing missiles in Cuba would accomplish?

"Equalize" nuclear geography with the United States.

Why did [Khrushchev] believe missiles in Cuba could remain secret?

Soviet SAM sites could blind U-2 flights, preventing detection.

What codename did the USSR use for the missile operation in Cuba?

[Operation Anadyr].

What did Soviet officers tell troops the operation was?

A deployment to the Arctic (to maintain secrecy).

How many Soviet personnel were planned for Cuba?

Around 45,000.

How did [Castro] respond when the USSR proposed missiles?

He agreed, believing they would deter a U.S. invasion.

What made transporting missiles to Cuba extremely risky for the [USSR]?

U.S. naval surveillance in the Atlantic.

What tactics did Soviet ships use to avoid detection?

Radar silence, deceptive cargo, and sailing at night.

Why were living conditions poor for Soviet troops in Cuba?

They lived in jungle fields, camouflaged, with minimal shelter.

What problem did [General Issa Pliyev] face during deployment?

Tropical diseases and logistical shortages.

What did Soviet officers worry about before the U.S. discovered the missiles?

That construction was moving too slowly and too visibly.

What U.S. plane finally photographed the Soviet missile sites?

The U-2.

Who first analyzed the missile photos?

[CIA analyst Dino Brugioni] and NPIC.

What type of missiles were identified in the U-2 photos?

Medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic missiles.

Why was this a strategic shock to [Kennedy]?

Missiles in Cuba could strike most of the U.S. within minutes.

Who did Kennedy immediately convene to handle the crisis?

EXCOMM (Executive Committee of the National Security Council).

What two main options did [EXCOMM] debate?

An airstrike vs. a naval quarantine.

What argument did [McNamara] make against an airstrike?

It could start a nuclear war if Soviets retaliated.

What key concern did Kennedy have about striking Cuba?

Killing Soviet troops would force Khrushchev to respond.

What action did [Robert Kennedy] fear an attack would resemble?

Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.

What option did Kennedy choose first?

A naval quarantine (blockade).

What was the U.S. goal of the [naval quarantine]?

Stop further Soviet missile shipments to Cuba.