Mitosis
a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus
What are the two types of nuclear division?
Meiosis and mitosis
What is cytokinesis?
The cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis; brings about the separation into two daughter cells
Why do cells divide?
Reproduction Growth and development Repair/replace other cells
What are the important features of interphase in eukaryotic cells?
Cell acquires nutrients, creates and uses proteins and other molecules, and starts the process of cell division by replicating the DNA. Interphase is divided into three distinct stages, Gap 1, Synthesis, and Gap 2
Be able to draw out the cell cycle; draw out a cell in interphase and explain what’s happening in interphase.
What are the results of mitosis?
Two identical copies of a cell are formed. Increases the number of cells for growth and development
Chromatid
One of two strands of a copied chromosome
sister chromatids
Two chromatids that are joined together at their centromeres
Chromosome
threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found din the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
Homologous chromosome
same size/shape
Kinetochore
attach to chromosome and break chromatids
Mitotic spindle
A cell structure consisting of microtubules, which forms during early mitosis and plays a role in cell division
Centrosome
The organizing centers for microtubules involved in separating chromosomes during mitosis
Centromere
The region where the identical DNA molecules are most tightly attached to each other after chromosomes condense
What are the "phases" of mitosis?
Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and cytokinesis
Prophase
Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes: 2 sister chromatids attached with centromere and collusion
Nucleoli disappear
Mitotic spindle begins to form
Prometaphase
Nuclear Envelope ruptures
Spindle enters nuclear are: -Kinetochore fibers: attach to chromosome and break chromatids -Non-kinetochore fibers
Metaphase
Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate
Move toward opposite poles: -Pacman method -Walking/reeling in method
Cell elongates- stretches the cell to make it easier to divide
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelope reforms
Nucleoli reappear
Chromosomes uncoil (form chromatin)
Mitosis spindle disappears
Cytokinesis happens
How does cytokinesis differ in plant and animal cells?
Cleavage groove in animal cells Cell plate formation in plant cells
What triggers cell division?
Growth/development factors
Repair/replace other cells
Reproduction
How is mitosis regulated?
Checkpoints along the way act like stop signs
Really tight regulations that control growth
MPF (maturation-promoting factor)
What happens in meiosis?
-The process of nuclear division in which the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is cut in half, and 4 genetically different nuclei are produced -Organisms use meiosis when they’re making gametes
Phases of meiosis/major events
Pre-meiotic interphases: cell replicates DNA
Meiosis I (reduction division) Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I and Cytokinesis
Meiosis II (sister chromatids split) Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase and Cytokinesis
What are the 3 sources of genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms?
Crossing Over
Independent assortment of chromosomes
Random fertilization of gametes
Compare mitosis and meiosis
look at image
Differences between mitosis and meiosis
look at image
Gametes
An organism's reproductive cells. Also referred to as sex cells
Haploid
Those that have only a single set of chromosomes (n). Haploid cells are formed through meiosis.
Diploid
Have two sets of chromosomes (2n). Undergo mitosis
Zygote
a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes (male and female); a fertilized ovum
What do Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment state? When do these occur? (during meiosis)
Laws of segregation- the 2 alleles for each character segregate (separate) when gametes are made (Meiosis I)
Law of Independent assortment- During the formation of gametes, alleles of 1 gene segregate independently of the allele of a second gene.
Alleles
Different forms of a single gene. Account for variations in characters such as flower color
Genes
A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristics of the offspring -Genes come in pairs. Organisms inherit 2 copies of a gene for the same character
Dominate
The allele that masks the expression of the other allele
Recessive
The allele that typically isn't expressed
Incomplete dominance
A heterozygous for a character doesn’t show a complete dominance/recessive relationship. Example: Pink genotype for snapdragons as a result form red and white mixing
Co-dominance
An organism is heterozygote for a character and both alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways. Example: Blood groups. I^a and I^b are both dominant and i is recessive
Pleiotropy
When a single gene has many phenotypic effects Example: Sickle cell disease (2 copies of the HbS allele)
What does the norm of reaction refer to?
Describes the pattern of phenotypic expression of a single genotype across a range of environments
What is X-inactivation?
When an Xist gene on one of the X chromosomes acts to inactivate the X chromosome early in embryonic development
Why are tortoise shell cats almost always females?
In order to be tortoise shelled, the cat's genotype has to be X^oX^b. So, has to have XX, which is unusual in males.
What important contribution to biology did Mary Lyon make?
She discovered the Barr body (x inactivation)
What is a Barr body?
In every female mammal, one of the X chromosomes that's inherited becomes inactivated
How many Barr bodies are found in females with a sex chromosome complement of XX? OR XXX?
XX- one
XXX- two
How do chromosomal nondisjunction and lagging result in abnormal chromosome numbers in cells?
The error in cell division results in a different end number of chromosomes
Nondisjunction
When chromosomes fail to separate properly during cell division (meiosis or mitosis)
Lagging
Delayed movement of a chromosome during anaphase
Aneuploidy in non-sex and sex chromosomes in humans
Non-sex: Fairly common and not an issue
Sex: Not as common, and can have devastating results
Alterations of chromosome structure
Trisomy: Extra chromosomes(s)
Monosomy: Missing a chromosome(s)
Polyploidy: Having a whole extra set of chromosomes (23)