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Neolithic Revolution

Transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement, leading to population growth and social stratification

Pastoralism

Societies based on domesticated animal herding, often nomadic and facilitating trade and cultural exchange

Hammurabi

Babylonian king who codified laws (Hammurabi’s Code), emphasizing social hierarchy and justice

Code of Hammurabi

Collection of 282 laws emphasizing retribution and social class distinctions

Cuneiform

First writing system developed by the Sumerians for record-keeping and administration

Epic of Gilgamesh

Mesopotamian literary work that explores human mortality and interaction with the divine

Mesopotamia

“Land between rivers” (Tigris and Euphrates), known for city-states, ziggurats, and innovations in writing

Egyptian Pharaohs

Centralized rulers of Egypt considered divine intermediaries between gods and humans

Mandate of Heaven

Chinese political doctrine stating rulers are justified by divine approval, used by Zhou Dynasty

Confucianism

Philosophy emphasizing filial piety, social hierarchy, education, and moral governance

Daoism

Chinese philosophy emphasizing harmony with nature, balance, and minimal government interference

Legalism

Chinese philosophy advocating strict laws and harsh punishments to maintain order

Siddhartha Gautama

Founder of Buddhism, teaching the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path

Buddhism

Religion emphasizing suffering, reincarnation, karma, and the path to enlightenment

Hinduism

South Asian religion emphasizing dharma, karma, reincarnation, and the caste system

Mauryan Empire

First major empire in India, known for centralized bureaucracy and Ashoka’s promotion of Buddhism

Ashoka

Mauryan emperor who converted to Buddhism and promoted nonviolence and dharma

Gupta Empire

Indian empire considered a “Golden Age” of culture, science, and mathematics

Classical Greece

Period with city-states like Athens and Sparta, development of democracy, philosophy, and art

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king who conquered Persia and spread Hellenistic culture

Hellenistic Era

Period of Greek cultural diffusion across the Mediterranean and Near East following Alexander’s conquests

Roman Republic

Early Roman government with elected officials, Senate, and checks on power

Julius Caesar

Roman general and dictator whose assassination led to the end of the Republic

Roman Empire

Centralized imperial state that expanded across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East

Pax Romana

Period of relative peace and stability in the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 180 CE)

Christianity

Monotheistic religion emerging from Judaism, spreading through the Roman Empire

Silk Roads

Network of trade routes connecting Eurasia, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies

Indian Ocean Trade Network

Maritime trade linking East Africa, Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia

Trans-Saharan Trade

Trade routes across the Sahara linking West Africa to Mediterranean and North African markets

Byzantine Empire

Eastern Roman Empire with strong centralized authority, Orthodox Christianity, and Greek influence

Islam

Monotheistic religion founded by Muhammad in the 7th century, spreading rapidly across Arabia and beyond

Caliph

Islamic political and religious leader following Muhammad’s death

Umayyad Caliphate

Early Islamic dynasty (661–750) known for expansion across North Africa, Spain, and Central Asia

Abbasid Caliphate

Islamic dynasty (750–1258) with Baghdad as a center of trade, learning, and culture

Feudalism

Decentralized political system in Europe and Japan based on reciprocal obligations of lords, vassals, and serfs

Manorial System

Economic structure of feudal Europe where peasants worked the lord’s land in exchange for protection

Crusades

Series of religious wars between Christians and Muslims over control of the Holy Land

Mongol Empire

Largest contiguous land empire in history, known for trade promotion, conquest, and Pax Mongolica

Genghis Khan

Founder of the Mongol Empire, known for uniting nomadic tribes and military innovations

Silk Road Diffusion

Spread of goods, religions (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam), technology, and disease along trade networks

Gunpowder Empires

Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires that used firearms and centralized authority to expand power

Ottoman Empire

Islamic empire controlling Anatolia, Southeast Europe, and the Middle East, lasting from 1300s to 1918

Safavid Empire

Shi’a Islamic empire in Persia, often in conflict with the Sunni Ottoman Empire

Mughal Empire

Islamic empire in India, noted for wealth, religious tolerance under Akbar, and monumental architecture

Swahili City-States

East African coastal trade centers blending Bantu and Islamic influences

Aztec Empire

Mesoamerican empire in central Mexico known for tribute system, human sacrifice, and Tenochtitlan

Inca Empire

South American empire in Andes, known for centralized control, roads, and quipu accounting system

Huitzilopochtli

Aztec sun and war deity central to religious rituals and human sacrifice

Quipu

Knotted string system used by the Inca to record information and manage the empire

Mita System

Labor system used by the Inca and adapted by Spanish colonial authorities for mines and agriculture

Tokugawa Shogunate

Japanese centralized feudal government (1603–1868) that limited foreign influence and maintained order

European Renaissance

Period of cultural revival in Europe emphasizing humanism, art, science, and classical learning

Scientific Revolution

Period (16th–17th century) emphasizing observation, experimentation, and questioning traditional authorities

Martin Luther

Initiated Protestant Reformation challenging the Catholic Church’s practices

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement breaking from the Catholic Church, leading to new denominations and political shifts