Study Guide for Unit 0: Scientific Foundations of Psychology - Vocabulary Flashcards

Flashcards covering key terms, concepts, and figures from the study notes on scientific foundations of psychology.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Statistical Significance

A statement about how likely a result is due to chance if there is no real difference between populations.

Informed Consent

Participants agree to take part with sufficient information about the study.

Confidentiality/Anonymity

Keeping participants' data private and not linking it to their identities.

Protection from Significant Physical or Mental Harm

Ethical safeguard to minimize risks to participants.

No Extreme Deception

Ethical guideline limiting deceptive practices in research.

Debrief

Explanation of purpose and results of a study provided to participants after participation.

Right to Withdraw

Participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.

Independent Variable

The factor that the researcher manipulates.

Dependent Variable

The outcome measured in the experiment.

Operational Definitions

Precise, measurable definitions of variables.

Replication

Repeating a study to verify results.

Ex-post Facto Experiment

Study where the IV is not manipulated by the researcher but is pre-existing.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

Blind Procedure

Participants do not know their group; researchers may or may not.

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

Scatter Plot (Correlational Data)

Graphical representation of the relationship between two variables; does not show causation.

Strong Correlation

A correlation coefficient close to either +1 or −1.

Weak Correlation

A correlation coefficient close to 0, indicating little to no linear relationship.

Illusory Correlation

Perceived relationship between variables where none exists.

Overconfidence

Excessive faith in one's own judgments or predictions.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to conditions by chance to equalize groups.

Confounding Variable

An outside variable that can affect the DV and confuse results.

Cognitive Approach

Focus on mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Evolutionary Approach

Explains behavior through natural selection and adaptation.

Biological Approach

Explains behavior via physiological processes and brain function.

Humanistic Approach

Emphasizes growth, potential, and self-actualization.

Behavioral Approach

Studies observable behavior and its environmental determinants.

Sociocultural Approach

Considers social and cultural influences on behavior.

Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytic Approach

Emphasizes unconscious processes and early experiences.

Educational Psychologist

Focuses on learning processes and instructional methods in schools.

Developmental Psychologist

Studying psychological growth and change across the lifespan.

Social Psychologist

Examines how others influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Human-Factors Psychologist

Optimizes human use of systems and products through design.

Psychoanalytic Psychologist

Explores unconscious motives and early experiences (often linked to Freud).

Humanistic Psychologist

Emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience.

Animal vs. Human Experimental Research Guidelines

Ethical standards for conducting experiments with animals vs humans, including welfare and consent.

Case Study (Strengths & Weaknesses)

In-depth analysis of a single case; rich detail but limited generalizability.

Naturalistic Observation (Strengths & Weaknesses)

Observing behavior in natural settings; high external validity but less control.

Correlational Research (Strengths & Weaknesses)

Examines relationships between variables; cannot establish causation.

Experiments (Strengths & Weaknesses)

Manipulate IV to establish causation; high control but sometimes artificial.

Longitudinal Study (Strengths & Weaknesses)

Follows the same individuals over time to observe changes; attrition and time cost are concerns.

Cross-Sectional Study (Strengths & Weaknesses)

Compares different groups at one point in time; quicker but cohorts may differ.

Surveys (Strengths & Weaknesses)

Collects data from many participants; efficient but prone to response biases.

Wording Effect

How question wording can bias survey responses.

Placebo Effect

People improve because they expect the treatment will work, not because of the treatment itself.

Wilhelm Wundt

Founder of experimental psychology; opened the first psychology laboratory.

Edward Titchener

Student of Wundt; promoted structuralism and introspection.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist known for operant conditioning and reinforcement.

William James

Proponent of functionalism; study of how mental processes help adapt to environments.

Mean

Arithmetic average of a data set.

Median

Middle value when a data set is ordered.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Standard Deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean.

Range

Difference between the maximum and minimum values.

Inferential Statistics

Techniques to infer about a population from sample data.

Descriptive Statistics

Methods to summarize and describe data (e.g., mean, median, mode, etc.).

Structuralism

Early school of psychology focusing on analyzing the basic elements of mind through introspection.

Functionalism

Early school focusing on the function and purpose of mental processes and behavior.

Random Sample

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.