Unit 5 Cognitive Psychology

Memory

is learning that has continued over time

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Deep processing

involves elaborative rehearsal along with meaningful analysis of the ideas and words being learned

Shallow processing

simple memorization of something without attaching meaning to it

Elaborative rehearsal

linking new information with existing memories and knowledge

Metacognition

an awareness of our thinking processes and an understanding of what we know.

Information-processing mode

a three-step process. Encoding - get information in (prepare for storage), Storage - keep information (rehearsal), Retrieval - get information back (recall)

Sensory memory

processing everything we sense (everything)

Iconic memory

fleeting visual images

Echoic memory

auditory signals

Short-term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Working Memory

a newer understanding of a short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

Long-term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Prospective Memory:

Remembering to perform actions in the future.

Retrospective Memory

Remembering events from the past or previously learned information.

Implicit Memory (nondeclarative

retention independent of conscious recollection; memories located in basal ganglia and cerebellum - Example: muscle memory, riding a bike, Remembering the words to a popular song after hearing the first few notes

Explicit Memory (declarative

- memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Episodic memories

The stories of our lives and experiences that we can recall and tell someone

Semantic memories

Impersonal memories that are not drawn from personal experience but rather from everyday, common kinds of knowledge ( Names of colors, states, facts)

Flashbulb memories

refer to emotionally intense events that become "burned in" as a vivid-seeming memory.

George Miller

Seven, Plus or Minus Two is considered to be the amount of meaningful information one can hold in STM

Hermann Ebbinghaus

was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect.

Noam Chomsky

is a contemporary psychologist and linguist known his theory of innate grammar

Wolfgang Kohler

created the idea of insight learning

Elizabeth Loftus

study eyewitness testimony and memory reconstruction

Semantic Encoding

Using past events or items you have already learned to organize your thoughts and learn new material. Making it RELEVANT to you.

Encoding Failure

Ineffective attention given to material

Storage Decay

Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Hermann Ebbinghaus - The more times he rehearsed out loud on day 1, the less time he needed to relearn/memorize the same letters on day 2.
Ebbinghaus showed this with his forgetting curve. Forgetting occurs rapidly and then levels off with time

Recognition

correct identification of previously learned material (example: multiple choice)

Recall

direct retrieval of facts or information (example: FRQ)

State-dependent memory

is the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall

Mood-dependent memory

information can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired

Context dependent memory

refers to the phenomenon of how much easier it is to retrieve certain memories when the "context," or circumstances around the memory are same for both the original encoding and retrieval.

Priming

triggers a thread of associations that bring us to a concept

Retrieval Failure

Although the information is retained in the memory store it cannot be accessed
(Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon)

The serial position effect

refers to the tendency, when learning information in a long list, to more likely recall the first items (primacy effect) and the last items (recency effect).

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking

combining grouping bits or related information

Method of loci

is a strategy of memory enhancement which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information

Peg word system

- is a mnemonic device that is used to memorize lists that need to be in order. An object or image is visualized which holds or 'pegs' the information that needs to be recalled and makes it easier to remember

Spacing Effect -

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information.

self-reference effect

is a tendency for people to encode information differently depending on the level on which they are implicated in the information

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to remember information previously stored in memory.

Anterograde Amnesia:

The inability to form memories from new material.

Proactive Interference

- the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Misinformation Effect

- incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. Elizabeth Loftus studied this.

Source Amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined

Long-term Potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Basal Ganglia

Plays an important role in memory retrieval and procedural memory - creating and maintaining habits

Amygdala

Primary processor of emotional reactions and social and sexual behavior

Hippocampus

Most associated with emotions and transfer of information from STM to LTM

Cerebellum

Responsible for procedural memories such as how to tie a shoelace, play guitar, or touch-type

Concept

Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of chair.

Prototype

mental image or best example of a category.

Algorithm

methodical, logical rules or procedures that guarantee solving a particular problem because it explores every possibility

Heuristic

simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently (rule of thumb)

Insight

sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem, such as suddenly seeing a cause and effect relationship

Creativity

Ability to produce novel and valuable ideas (expertise, imagination, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment)

Convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Functional Fixedness

Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose

Belief Perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

overconfidence bias

the bias in which people's subjective confidence in their decision making is greater than their objective accuracy

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

Representative heuristic

when we judge how something represents, or matches, certain prototypes we have

Availability heuristic

likelihood of event based on their availability in memory

Intelligence -

refers to our ability to learn from experience, recognize problems, and use knowledge in order to adapt to new situations and solve problems

Fluid intelligence

recognizing patterns, seeing relationships, using logic to solve novel problems

Crystallized intelligence

one's accumulated knowledge

Flynn Effect

says that people are either getting smarter or at least better at taking standardized tests

Stereotype threat

when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group

Savant Syndrome

condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an amazing specific skill (Computation, drawing)

Mental age

age-level at which you function mentally

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

take the mental age (provided by the exam) divided by the chronological age (actual age) multiplied by 100

Emotional Intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence.

Overall, social and eco-cultural elements greatly affect intelligence. People who are met with challenges that increase the need to use brain power may have a greater measured intelligence. Whereas people who are stressed because of the nature of their environment score worse on intelligence measures.
Racial groups differ in their average intelligence scores. Also, high-scoring people (and groups) are more likely to attain high levels of education and income. European-New Zealanders outscore native Maori New Zealanders; White Americans tend to outscore Black Americans, and so on. Group differences in a heritable trait may be entirely environmental, however.
Generally speaking, there are typically more differences among girls and among boys than there are betweenboys and girls, but researchers and the general public find sex differences more intriguing to focus on. Some studies have shown girls to have stronger spelling scores and higher verbal fluency and boys to have higher spatial abilities and math computation skills.

Sperman's g factor refers to

a general intelligence that underlies successful performance on a wide variety of tasks.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts

linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, intrapersonal

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical

Sir Francis Galton -

- became interested in individual differences. From his work emerged the concept of measuring intelligence.

Alfred Binet

invented the first practical IQ test. Stanford-Binet Test - First intelligence test in the United States

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

David Wechsler's definition of intelligence

The global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

-most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance subtests
Performance scale - measured processing speed, Abstract tasks - matching visual patterns, Verbal scale - verbal comprehension

Achievement Test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

Aptitude Test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Test-retest reliability

having same individual take the same two test at two different times

Split-half reliability

checking for consistency between the scores on two halves of the same test

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is is supposed to

Content Validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Construct Validity

whether a test is really evaluating an abstract psychological or theoretical idea

Criterion or Predictive Validity

how well test results relate to another measure of what you are evaluating