UMKC Anatomy 218 Exam 1 (1.01-1.04)

Dr. Allen

Dorsal body cavity

Cranial cavity → contains the brain

Vertebral (spinal) cavity → contains the spinal cord

Ventral body cavity

Thoracic cavity → chest

Abdominopelvic cavity → abdomen + pelvis

*The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.

Thoracic cavity

Pleural cavities → surround the lungs

Pericardial cavity → surrounds the heart

Mediastinum → central region between the lungs; the heart is located here.

Abdominopelvic cavity

Abdominal cavity → contains many digestive organs

Pelvic cavity → contains structures such as the urinary bladder and internal reproductive organs.

Abdomen has 9 regions

Right	Middle	Left
Right hypochondriac	Epigastric	Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar	Umbilical	Left lumbar
Right iliac	Hypogastric	Left iliac

*Right and left switched

The middle column (top to bottom)

Epigastric → above the stomach area
Umbilical → belly button
Hypogastric → below the stomach area

The sides

Top = Hypochondriac

Middle = Lumbar

Bottom = Iliac

Epithelial cells have distinct sides

Apical surface → exposed/free side, usually facing a lumen or body surface

Basal surface → bottom side, attached toward underlying connective tissue

Lateral surfaces → sides where epithelial cells contact neighboring cells.

*A lumen is simply the hollow space inside an organ.

Basement membrane

The basement membrane sits between:

epithelial tissue ↔ connective tissue

Epithelial tissue is avascular

Avascular = no blood vessels within the tissue

Simple squamous = THIN

1 layer of flat cells

Good for rapid diffusion and filtration.

Main examples from your slide:
Alveoli of lungs, lining of blood vessels, parts of kidney.

Simple cuboidal = ABSORB + SECRETE

1 layer of cube-shaped cells

Main examples:

Kidney tubules, thyroid follicles, and ducts/secretory regions of glands.

Think: cuboidal = kidney + glands.

Simple columnar = ABSORB + SECRETE

Your big example is the small intestine. Nonciliated simple columnar there can have:

• Microvilli → brush border

• Goblet cells → secrete mucin

*Ciliated simple columnar is found in places including the uterine tube.

Pseudostratified columnar

Looks stratified but isn't.

All cells touch the basement membrane, although not all reach the apical surface.

The ciliated form:
secretes mucin + moves mucus

Big location: respiratory tract, including the nasal cavity.

Think: pseudostratified + cilia = respiratory tract.

Stratified squamous = PROTECTION

Two versions:

Keratinized
→ dead, flat, keratin-filled cells at surface
→ epidermis of skin

Nonkeratinized
→ surface cells remain moist and alive
→ esophagus + vagina

Stratified cuboidal

Multiple layers (usually 2) + cuboidal apical cells.

Function: protection + secretion
Main example: sweat gland ducts.

Stratified columnar

Multiple layers + columnar apical cells.

Function: protection + secretion

It's rare. Professor specifically says you won't see much of it, although it can still show up as a distractor on questions. One example is the large ducts of some salivary glands.

Transitional epithelium

Found only in the urinary system—including the kidney, ureter, and bladder.

When relaxed, the apical surface can look rounded/pillowy with large umbrella cells.

When stretched, those cells become flatter/more squamous-looking.

Epithelial cheat sheet

Tissue	Think
Simple squamous	Alveoli → diffusion
Simple cuboidal	Kidney tubules → absorption/secretion
Simple columnar	Intestine → absorption/secretion
Pseudostratified columnar	Respiratory tract → mucus/cilia
Stratified squamous	Protection → skin/esophagus
Stratified cuboidal	Sweat gland duct
Stratified columnar	Rare
Transitional	Urinary system → stretch

The 3 fiber types

1. Collagen fibers

• Most common

• Thick

• Strong

Think: collagen = strength

2. Elastic fibers

• Thin and flexible

• Stretch and then return to their original shape

Think: elastic = elastic band

3. Reticular fibers

• Form an interwoven network

• Create supportive spaces for cells

• Professor specifically mentions lymphatic organs as having lots of them.

Ground substance changes a LOT

It can be:

watery → some connective tissues
gel-like → cartilage
solid/calcified → bone

Cell Types

Fibroblast = most common cell in connective tissue proper.

You can also have:

• Adipocytes → fat cells

• Macrophages

• Wandering immune cells that enter from the blood

Connective tissue major categories

Connective tissue proper → fiber-dominated, loose or dense
Supporting connective tissue → cartilage + bone
Fluid connective tissue → blood + lymph

Loose connective tissue

Areolar CT = loose arrangement of fibers with lots of open space.

When you see epithelium, the connective tissue immediately underneath is often areolar CT

Adipose CT = dominated by adipocytes containing lipid droplets. The nucleus gets pushed toward the edge of the cell.

Functions:
energy storage + cushioning + insulation

Locations:
Subcutaneous fat + visceral fat.

Dense connective tissue

The key difference is that it's much more fiber-dominated.

Dense regular CT → fibers arranged to provide strength in ONE direction → TENDONS

Connects tendons with dense regular CT because they need to be strong in one direction.

Regular = fibers running together → tendon

Dense irregular CT. Instead of being built mainly for force in one direction, this forms strong sheets/coverings.

Dermis contains dense irregular CT.

Cartilage

All three types have chondrocytes sitting in spaces called lacunae.

Hyaline cartilage

• Most common cartilage

• “Glassy” matrix

• Support/protection

• Tracheal rings, nose, costal cartilage, fetal skeleton

• Articular cartilage covers joint surfaces

Hyaline = trachea

Elastic cartilage

• Lots of elastic fibers

• Very flexible/resilient

• External ear + epiglottis

Elastic = EAR

Fibrocartilage

• Lots of visible collagen

• Resists compression + absorbs shock

• Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee

Fibrocartilage = shock absorber

Bone

Bone has a solid matrix and stores minerals such as calcium.

Two forms:

Compact bone → osteons
Spongy bone → trabeculae; NO osteons

Osteocyte = mature bone cell
Lacuna = little space that holds the osteocyte

Blood + Lymph

These are fluid connective tissues.

Blood:

• Plasma = watery ground substance

• Erythrocytes = RBCs, no nuclei

• Leukocytes = WBCs, have nuclei

• Platelets = cell fragments involved in clotting

• Major role = transport + immune response

Lymph is a fluid derived from plasma that travels through lymphatic vessels and is important for fluid balance, immunity, and fat absorption.

Skeletal muscle

*Body movement

Skeletal muscle

• Long, cylindrical cells

• Striated = visible light/dark bands

• Multiple nuclei, located toward the outside/periphery

• Voluntary

• Attaches to bone and/or skin through tendons

• Also produces heat

Skeletal = striated + MANY nuclei + voluntary

Cardiac muscle

*Heart

Cardiac muscle

• Shorter, branched/Y-shaped cells

• Striated

• Usually one central nucleus

• Has intercalated discs connecting cells

• Some cells are autorhythmic

• Found in the myocardium/wall of the heart

Cardiac = striated + branched + intercalated discs

Smooth muscle

Walls of internal organs

Smooth muscle

• Short, fusiform cells = wide middle, tapered ends

• NO striations

• One central nucleus

• Involuntary

• Moves things like food, blood, and sperm

• Found in stomach, intestines, bladder, airways, etc.

Smooth = smooth-looking → NO stripes

Nervous tissue

Two big cell categories:

Neurons = communicate using electrical activity
Neuroglia/glial cells = support and protect neurons

A neuron has:

Dendrites → receive signals
Cell body → main portion of cell
Axon → carries signal toward other cells

Dendrites = Detect/receive
Axon = Away from the cell body

Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, ganglia, and peripheral nerves.

Prenatal development timeline

Pre-embryonic = weeks 1–2
Embryonic = weeks 3–8 → major organ systems begin developing
Fetal = weeks 9–38 → continued growth and development

Fertilization → blastocyst

Sperm + egg → fertilization → zygote

Then the zygote undergoes cleavage (repeated mitotic division)

*During cleavage, the number of cells increases but the overall size stays about the same.

Then:

Zygote → cleavage → morula → blastocyst → implantation

Morula = solid ball of cells
Blastocyst = hollow ball with a fluid-filled cavity
Implantation = blastocyst embeds in the uterine endometrium

Gastrulation

Formation of the THREE primary germ layers.

Those are:

Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm

Together they form the trilaminar embryonic disc.

ECTODERM → OUTSIDE + NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Epidermis of skin

• Nervous tissue

• Sense organs

• Neural tube → central nervous system

ECTO = exterior

MESODERM → MUSCLE + CONNECTIVE/SUPPORTING STUFF

• Muscle

• Dermis

• Most connective tissues

• Axial skeleton

• Much of cardiovascular system

• Much of urinary/reproductive systems

MESO = middle → muscle

ENDODERM → INTERNAL LININGS

• Digestive tract lining

• Respiratory tract lining

• Urinary tract lining

• Reproductive tract lining

ENDO = inside

Endocrine vs. Exocrine

Endocrine = NO ducts

• Secrete hormones

• Hormones go into interstitial fluid/bloodstream

Exocrine = HAS ducts

• Secrete products into ducts

• Examples of products include mucin and enzymes

EXocrine = EXit through a duct

Three secretion methods

Merocrine

• Product released by exocytosis

• Most common

• Examples: sweat + salivary glands

Apocrine

• Apical portion pinches off

• Example: mammary glands

Holocrine

• Entire cell disintegrates

• Example: sebaceous glands

Memory:

Mero → exocytosis
Apo → apical part pinches off
Holo → whole cell dies

Serous → watery
Mucous → mucin
Mixed/seromucous → both

cell cycle

Two major parts:

INTERPHASE → cell is not actively dividing
MITOTIC (M) PHASE → cell divides

Interphase

G₁ → S → G₂

• G₁: growth

• S: DNA is replicated

• G₂: more preparation for division

MITOTIC PHASE

P → M → A → T

PROPHASE

• Chromatin condenses → visible chromosomes

• Nuclear envelope begins disappearing

• Centrioles move toward opposite poles

• Mitotic spindle forms

Think: PREPARE

METAPHASE

• Chromosomes line up across the middle/equatorial plate

M = Middle

ANAPHASE

• Sister chromatids separate

• Move toward opposite poles

A = Away

TELOPHASE

• Chromosomes reach opposite ends

• Nuclear envelopes re-form

• Chromosomes begin returning to chromatin

Think: Two nuclei are forming

CYTOKINESIS = cytoplasm divides

Important distinction: Professor specifically says cytokinesis is not a fifth stage of mitosis. There are only four stages.

cell death

Apoptosis = programmed/normal cell death
Necrosis = accidental cell death from damage

Cytoskeleton — 3 types

Microfilaments

• Made of actin

• Maintain cell shape

• Muscle contraction

• Help separate cells during cell division

Intermediate filaments

• Made of keratin

• Maintain cell shape

• Associated with some cell-to-cell junctions

Microtubules

• Made of tubulin

• Largest of the three

• Help maintain cell shape/hold organelles

• Associated with cilia + flagella

• Form the mitotic spindle

Microtubules = Movement + Mitosis

Centrosome + Centrioles

The centrosome is near the nucleus and acts as a microtubule-organizing center.

Inside it is a pair of centrioles. Before mitosis, centrioles replicate and help form the spindle fibers. Modified centrioles can also form the basal bodies of cilia.

Epithelial Junctions

Tight junction
→ most apical
→ prevents molecules from passing around/between cells

Adhering junction
→ an adhesion belt around the cell

Desmosome
→ fastens one cell to another
→ think spot weld

Gap junction
→ fluid-filled pore between cells

Hemidesmosome
→ like a desmosome, but at the basal surface

Basement membrane = basal lamina + reticular lamina

• Basal lamina → produced by epithelial cells

• Reticular lamina → produced by connective tissue cells

• Basement membrane supports and anchors the epithelium and acts as a barrier.

Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants

RUQ = Right Upper Quadrant	LUQ = Left Upper Quadrant
RLQ = Right Lower Quadrant	LLQ = Left Lower Quadrant

Slides give these typical organ examples:

• RUQ: liver + gallbladder

• LUQ: stomach + spleen

• RLQ: cecum + appendix

• LLQ: sigmoid colon

Appendix → RLQ
Gallbladder → RUQ
Stomach → LUQ

Free vs. Bound Ribosomes

Free ribosomes
→ float in the cytosol
→ make proteins that will be used inside the cell

Free = For the cell itself

Bound ribosomes
→ attached to rough ER or the outer nuclear envelope
→ make proteins that will be:

• put into the plasma membrane

• exported from the cell

• placed inside lysosomes

Membrane-bound vs. Non-membrane-bound

Membrane-bound:
Nucleus, ER, Golgi, lysosomes, mitochondria

Non-membrane-bound:
Ribosomes, cytoskeleton, centrosome/centrioles

Nucleus → Chromatin → Chromosomes

The nucleus stores nuclear DNA and controls cellular activity. The nuclear envelope is a double membrane with nuclear pores, and the nucleolus makes ribosome subunits.

When the cell is not dividing:

DNA + histone proteins = chromatin

When the cell prepares to divide:

Chromatin condenses → chromosomes

Chromatin = loose
Chromosomes = condensed

Glycocalyx

The cell's “sugar coating” which is important for things like cell recognition/communication.

Carbohydrates involved:

Glycoprotein = carbohydrate + protein

Glycolipid = carbohydrate + lipid

Tissue growth terms

Hypertrophy → existing cells get larger

example: skeletal muscle cells increasing in size with exercise

Atrophy → cells/tissue decrease in size

example: muscle shrinking from lack of use

Reticular connective tissue

lots of reticular fibers forming a branching/woven framework

reticular = network/framework

Elastic connective tissue

→ lots of elastic fibers

→ designed for stretching and recoiling

Exocrine Gland Structure

Ducts:

Simple = unbranched duct

Compound = branched duct

Secretory portion:

Tubular = tube-shaped

Acinar/alveolar = rounded, sac-like

Tubuloacinar = combination

Examples:

Simple tubular → unbranched duct + tube-shaped secretory portion
Compound acinar → branched ducts + rounded secretory portions

Skin = Cutaneous Membrane

The skin has 2 main layers:

Epidermis
→ epithelial tissue
→ keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
→ avascular

Dermis
→ connective tissue

The hypodermis/subcutaneous layer is mostly adipose tissue beneath the dermis, but isn't one of the two layers of the cutaneous membrane. mostly

Epidermal Layers — SUPERFICIAL → DEEP

Corneum
Lucidum
Granulosum
Spinosum
Basale

*Come Let's Get Sun Burned

Stratum lucidum ONLY exists in THICK skin.

• Thick skin is found on the palms and soles, and it has no hair follicles or sebaceous glands. Thin skin covers most of the body

Thin skin:
→ stratum spinosum is the thickest epidermal layer

Thick skin:
→ stratum corneum is the thickest epidermal layer.

Epidermal Cell Types

Keratinocytes
→ make up the majority of epidermal cells
→ produce keratin

Melanocytes
→ mainly in stratum basale
→ produce melanin → pigmentation

Tactile cells
→ stratum basale
→ sensory cells associated with light touch

Epidermal dendritic cells (Langerhans cells)
→ especially associated with stratum spinosum
→ immune defense

Dermis has TWO layers

Papillary layer
→ superficial
→ areolar connective tissue
→ contains dermal papillae
→ Meissner's (tactile) corpuscles are found here for light touch.

Reticular layer
→ deeper + thicker
→ dense irregular connective tissue

So from superficial → deep:

Epidermis
↓
Papillary dermis = areolar CT
↓
Reticular dermis = dense irregular CT
↓
Hypodermis/subcutaneous layer

Papillary = Pokes upward + superficial
Reticular = deeper

Melanin

→ produced by melanocytes
→ most common pigment
→ increases with UV exposure

Two forms:

• Eumelanin → brown/black

• Pheomelanin → yellow/red

Important: People have about the same number of melanocytes; differences in complexion are related to their activity and types/amounts of melanin

Hemoglobin

Pigment in red blood cells

→ contributes red/pink coloration

Example: blood closer to the surface → more flushed appearance; farther away → paler appearance.

Carotene

yellow-orange pigment from foods
accumulates in: stratum corneum + subcutaneous fat

Hair

Shaft → portion projecting above the skin
Root → portion below the skin
Hair follicle → surrounds the root
Hair bulb → enlarged base of the root

Associated with hair:

Arrector pili muscle → smooth muscle that pulls hair upright → “goosebumps”

Hair root plexus → sensory nerve endings around the follicle

THICK SKIN = NO HAIR

Terminal hair → thicker/coarser hair, such as scalp hair
Vellus hair → finer, more delicate hair, such as the forearm.

Nails

Made primarily of keratinized cells.

The nail body/plate is the visible portion, while growth occurs from cells associated with the nail root/matrix.

Sweat glands

Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands
→ watery sweat
→ release onto the surface of the skin through a pore
→ especially numerous on palms, soles, forehead
→ major function = thermoregulation
→ secretion released by exocytosis

Apocrine sweat glands
→ release into hair follicles
→ found in areas including axilla/armpit and groin
→ thicker secretion containing proteins + lipids
→ become active at puberty
→ bacteria acting on the secretion produces characteristic odor.

Eccrine = exits to skin
Apocrine = associated with hair

Sebaceous glands

→ holocrine glands
→ produce oily sebum
→ usually release into hair follicles
→ lubricates skin + hair and helps prevent drying.

Two modified glands

Ceruminous glands
→ external acoustic meatus/ear canal
→ contribute to cerumen (earwax)

Mammary glands
→ modified apocrine glands
→ produce breast milk when functional

Skin repair

Two possible outcomes:

Regeneration → damaged cells replaced with the same cell type

Fibrosis → damaged area filled with scar tissue

Basic sequence:

blood clot → fibroblasts produce collagen → epithelial cells divide and close wound

Severe damage may permanently destroy structures such as hair follicles, glands, nerves, and arrector pili.

Epidermal strata details

Corneum
→ superficial keratinized cells

Lucidum
→ thick skin only

Granulosum
→ cells undergoing keratinization
→ contains keratohyalin granules
→ lamellar granules release lipids that help form the water barrier

Spinosum
→ keratinocytes connected by desmosomes
→ contains dendritic/Langerhans cells

Basale
→ deepest epidermal layer
→ most mitotically active
→ stem cells divide to replace lost keratinocytes
→ contains melanocytes + tactile/Merkel cells

Skin receptors

Meissner's corpuscle → in dermal papillae/papillary dermis.
Merkel/tactile cell → basale
Free nerve endings → include nociceptors
Pacinian corpuscle → recognizable encapsulated receptor
Ruffini corpuscle → another encapsulated receptor