4.1-4.3 psych

Person perception

How we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior

Attribution theory

The theory of how we explain someone's behavior

Dispositional attribution

An explanation of behavior that credits the person’s stable, enduring traits

Situational attribution

An explanation of behavior that credits the surrounding situation

Explanatory style

The tendency one takes to explain events and behaviors in either an optimistic or pessimistic light

Fundamental attribution error

The tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition

Actor-observer bias

The tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes

Self-serving bias

A readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

Internal locus of control

The perception that we control our own fate

External locus of control

The perception that outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Mere exposure effect

The tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment

Social comparison

When people determine their own social and personal worth based on how they stack up against others

Relative deprivation

The perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves

Attitude

A feeling, often influenced by our beliefs, that predisposes us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

Stereotype

A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

Cognitive load

The mental effort required to make a judgement or decision in a situation

Prejudice

An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

Implicit attitudes

Attitudes that operate below the level of our conscious awareness

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe that the world is fair and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Ingroup

“Us” – people with whom we share a common identity

Ingroup bias

The tendency to favor our own group

Outgroup

“Them” – those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

Outgroup homogeneity bias

The tendency to view members of an outgroup as more similar to each other – in attitudes, personality, and physical appearance – than members of one's ingroup

Belief perseverance

The persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort or anxiety we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent, or when our actions don’t match our beliefs. The theory suggests that we take action (by changing our attitudes or beliefs) to reduce this tension.

Social norms

A society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behaviors

Social influence theory

The way in which individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the presence, opinions, and actions of others

Informational social influence

Influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

Normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

Persuasion

Changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions

Central route persuasion

Occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

Peripheral route persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

Halo effect

A cognitive bias where the perception of one positive trait (e.g., attractiveness) influences the perception of other unrelated traits (e.g., intelligence or kindness)

Foot-in-the-door technique

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

Door-in-the-face technique

The tendency for people to agree to a smaller request when they have already turned down a larger, more unreasonable request

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Obedience

Complying with an order or command

Individualism

A cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes

Collectivism

A cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family or work group)

Multiculturalism

A cultural pattern that prioritizes cultural and ethnic groups’ maintenance of their unique identities, beliefs, and practices

Group polarization

The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the group

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Diffusion of responsibility

When people perceive the duty to act in a situation as being shared by others around them

Social loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Social facilitation

In the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks

Social trap

A situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Superordinate goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Social debt

A feeling that we “owe” some kind of kindness or generosity to others

Social reciprocity norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

Social responsibility norm

An expectation that people will help those needing their help

Bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present