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Sociology
The systematic study of society and social interaction
“Sociology”
Latin word socius (companion) and Greek word logos (speech or reason)
Society
A group of people whose members interact, reside in a definable area, and share a culture
Culture
the group’s shared practices, values, beliefs, norms, and artifacts
Levels of analysis
micro-level sociology, macro-level sociology and global-level sociology
Micro-level sociology
the focus is on the social dynamics of intimate, face-to-face interactions (typically individual)
Macro-level sociology
focuses on the properties of large-scale, society-wide social interactions
Global-level sociology
the focus is on structures and processes that extend beyond the boundaries of states or specific societies
Émile Durkheim’s classic study of suicide
demonstrated that rates of suicide differed between religious communities
C. Wright Mills
came up with the sociological imagination
Sociological imagination
how individuals understand their own and others’ lives in relation to history and social structure
Social structures
general patterns that are habitual or routinized at micro-levels of interaction - institutionalized at macro or global levels of interaction
Reification
refers to the way in which abstract concepts, complex processes, or mutable social relationships come to be thought of as “things”
Norm
a social rule that regulates human behaviour
Histories by Herodotus
described the great variations in the nomos of different ancient societies
Ma Tuan-Lin
first recognized social dynamics as an underlying historical component
Berber scholar Ibn Khaldun
some consider him to be the world’s first sociologist
19th century
basis of modern sociology was established
Rationalism
sought the laws that governed the truth of reason and idea
Empiricism
sought to discover the laws of the operation of the world through the careful, methodical, and detailed observation of the world
Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès
The term sociology was first coined by him
Auguste Comte
proposed a renewed, organic spiritual order in which the authority of science would be the means to create a rational social order - imagined himself as the “Great Priest of Humanity” - positivism
Karl Marx
critical analysis of capitalism - material or economic basis of inequality and power relations - caused social instability and conflict
Marx’s analysis
showed the social relationships that had created the market system, and the social repercussions of their operation
Harriet Martineau
one of the first women sociologists in the 19th century
Key to Durkheim’s approach
the analysis of social facts and social functions to understand society
Social facts
things like law, custom, morality, religious rites, language etc
Max Weber
established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich
Verstehen
German word that means to understand from a subject’s point of view
In seeking Verstehen
an entire culture or a small setting - attempt to understand it empathetically from an insider’s point of view
Social action
actions to which individuals attach subjective meanings
Interpretive sociology
social researchers strive to find systematic means to interpret and describe the subjective meanings behind social processes, cultural norms, and societal values
Simmel’s focus on how social forms emerge
very important for micro-sociology, symbolic interactionism
Sociologists
Study social events, interactions, and patterns - then develop theories - to explain why these occur and what can result from them
Theory
A way to explain different aspects of social interactions and create testable propositions about society
Multi-perspectival science
many distinct perspectives or paradigms offer competing explanations of social phenomena (Ex. sociology)
Paradigms
philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and research
Two sociological paradigms
Critical sociology and symbolic interactionism
Science
use of reasoned argument, seeing general patterns, observing evidence
18th century - Christendom
three distinct spheres of knowledge: the natural sciences, hermeneutics and critique
Positivist sociology
focuses on generating types of knowledge useful for controlling or administering social life
Interpretive sociology
on types of knowledge useful for promoting greater mutual understanding and consensus among members of society
Critical sociology
on types of knowledge useful for changing and improving the world, for emancipating people from conditions of servitude
Five paradigms of sociological thinking
quantitative sociology, structural functionalism, historical materialism, feminism, and symbolic interactionism
Positivism
developing a knowledge useful for controlling or administering social life
Two forms of positivism have been dominant in sociology since the 1940s
quantitative sociology and structural functionalism
Four main rules of Positivism
The rule of empiricism: We can only know about things that are actually given in experience
The rule of value neutrality: Scientists should remain value-neutral in their research
The unity of the scientific method rule: All sciences have the same basic principles and practices
The rule of law-like statements: The type of explanation sought by scientific inquiry is the formulation of general laws to explain phenomena
Quantitative Sociology
uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants to quantify relationships between social variables
Quantitative sociologists
argue that the elements of human life can be measured and quantified - described in numerical term
Structural Functionalism
sees society as composed of structures and the functions they serve
Functions
Regular patterns of behaviour and organized social arrangements that persist through time
Structures
The biological and social needs of individuals who make up that society
Different societies
same basic functional requirements - used different configurations of social structure - therefore is a system
Talcott Parson
A healthy society - all parts work together to produce a stable state called dynamic equilibrium
AGIL schema
Talcott Parsons’ division of society into four functional requisites: Adaptation, Goal attainment, Integration, and Latent pattern maintenance
Robert Merton
pointed out that social processes can have more than one function
Manifest functions
the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated
Latent functions
the unsought consequences of a social process
Dysfunctions
social processes that have undesirable consequences for the operation of society
Interpretive sociology
understanding or interpreting human activity in terms of the meanings that humans attribute to it
“symbolic interactionism” - and it’s 3 basic premises
Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things
The meaning of such things is derived from the social interaction that one has with others and the society
These meanings - interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters
Critical Sociology
promotes practices of liberation and social change in order to achieve universal social justice
Critical Sociology has two value judgements
That human life is worth living
In a given society, specific possibilities exist for the amelioration of human life
Historical materialism
concentrates on how our everyday lives are structured by the connection between relations of power and economic processes
Mode of production
the way human societies use resources and the environment to meet their needs
Dialectics
proposes that social contradiction, opposition, and struggle in society drive processes of social change and transformation
Four components of Historical materialism analysis
Everything in society is related - not possible to study in isolation
Everything in society is dynamic - not possible to study outside of history
Gradual accumulation of many social changes eventually create a qualitative transformation or social turning point
The tensions that form around relationships of power and inequality in society are the key drivers of social change
Feminist sociology
focused on the power relationships and inequalities between women and men
Patriarchy
A set of institutional structures based on the belief that men and women are dichotomous and unequal categories
Dominant gender ideology
the assumption that physiological sex differences between males and females - affects character, behaviour, and ability
Three waves of feminism - had 4 common characteristics
Gender differences are the central focus or subject matter
Gender relations are viewed as a social problem
Gender relations are not immutable
Feminism is about commitment to change
Dorothy Smith
developed standpoint theory
Standpoint theory
A key innovation in sociology that enabled these issues to be seen and addressed in a systematic way
Dual consciousness
Women’s position in modern society is divided by experience
Western Marxism
refers to more independent and critical forms of Marxism
Hegemony
Antonio Gramsci - helped found the Communist Party of Italy - wrote about hegemony
Hegemony refers to ideological control and consent
The ruling class will fight against the subordinate class to get what they want from the government
Hegemony is not static and as such the ruling class cannot take it for granted
Ex. Heterosexuality being the norm within society
Feminist Theories
Men have an interest in maintaining their social privilege over women
First-wave feminism - mid-1800s - just after World War I with the victory for (some) women of the right to vote
Second-wave feminism - 1960s in North America - fight against gender oppression
Smith - calls objectified forms of knowledge androccntric (meaning "male- centred")
Smith argues that women have been left out of knowledge and should be more involved
bell hooks
pen name for Gloria Jean Watkins - critical figure in black feminist thought, also called anti-racist feminism and multicultural feminism
Post-Structuralist Theory
Post-structuralists - argues that scientific knowledge, or ideas about absolute "truth," cannot stand outside power relations
Michel Foucault - definition of power is different from the Marxist theory of power as oppression - a position that he refers to as the repressive hypothesis
Discourse - A system of meaning that governs how we think, act, and speak about a particular thing or issue
Discipline - The means by which we become motivated to produce particular realities
Normalization - A social process by which some practices and ways of living are marked as "normal" and others are marked as "abnormal”
Queer Theory
Queer theory problematizes the assumption that we are all the same and deserve the
same treatment
Queer theory is also concerned with deconstructing sexual identities by exploring how these identities are historically and culturally situated
Three areas of queer theory - desire, language, and identity
Desire - Our sexual attractions and wants
Identity - Allows for sexuality's diverse and numerous expressions
Language - related to power
