AP U.S. Government & Politics: Key Concepts in Congress, Presidency, and Judiciary

Bureaucracies creating regulations

Bureaucratic agencies make detailed rules and regulations to implement laws passed by Congress.

How Congress interacts with the bureaucracies

"Congress creates agencies, funds them, and uses oversight hearings to monitor their actions."

Origin of Revenue Bills

All revenue (tax) bills must originate in the House of Representatives.

Judicial review

The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison).

Federalist 78

Written by Hamilton; argues for the independence of the judiciary and supports lifetime appointments for judges.

Lifetime appointments to the courts

Federal judges serve for life to ensure independence from political pressures.

Creation of bureaucracies' annual budgets

"The president proposes the budget; Congress reviews, modifies, and approves it."

Conference vs select committees

Conference: resolve differences between House and Senate bills. Select: temporary committees for specific investigations or issues.

Boundary lines of single-member districts

Districts drawn so each elects one representative; lines can be manipulated through gerrymandering.

Bully pulpit

The president's use of visibility and influence to speak directly to the public and shape policy.

Importance of Supreme Court nominations to presidents

Allows presidents to shape the Court's ideology and leave a long-term legacy.

Leadership in the House and the Senate

House: Speaker of the House. Senate: Majority Leader (most powerful).

Checks on the federal courts

"Congress can alter court jurisdiction, impeach judges, and propose constitutional amendments."

System of checks and balances among all branches

Ensures no branch becomes too powerful; each branch can limit the others.

Characteristics of the Senate and the House***

"House: larger, more rules, represents districts, 2-year terms. Senate: smaller, more debate, represents states, 6-year terms."

What area(s) is Congress likely to defer to the president?

Foreign policy and national security.

Filibuster and cloture

Filibuster: delaying tactic in Senate debate. Cloture: 60 votes needed to end a filibuster.

Delegate vs trustee

Delegate: votes according to constituents' wishes. Trustee: votes based on personal judgment.

Line-item veto

Presidential power to veto specific parts of a bill—ruled unconstitutional for presidents in Clinton v. New York.

Mandatory vs discretionary spending

"Mandatory: required by law (e.g., Social Security). Discretionary: set yearly by Congress (e.g., defense, education)."

Partisanship

"Strong allegiance to one's political party, often leading to gridlock."

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to benefit one party or group.

Independent regulatory agencies

"Agencies that regulate specific areas of the economy, insulated from political control (e.g., FTC, FCC)."

Separation of powers

Division of government into three branches with distinct powers.

Formal and informal powers of the president

"Formal: veto, commander-in-chief, treaties, appointments. Informal: executive orders, persuasion, media influence."

Iron triangles

"Alliance between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that shape policy."

Judicial activism vs judicial restraint

Activism: judges interpret laws broadly to promote justice. Restraint: judges defer to elected branches and precedent.

Divided government

When different parties control the presidency and one or both houses of Congress—leads to gridlock.

Where most bills die

In committee.

Nominations to the Supreme Court

President nominates; Senate confirms or rejects.

Pork barrel projects

Government spending for localized projects to bring money or jobs to a representative's district.

Expansion of presidents' power over time (especially foreign powers)

Presidents have gained more influence in foreign affairs through executive agreements and military action.

Power of the purse

Congress's power to control government spending and funding.

President's publicity advantage over Congress

The president gets more media attention and can communicate directly with the public.

Veto

President's power to reject a bill passed by Congress.

When is Senate confirmation required?

"For presidential appointments (judges, ambassadors, cabinet members) and treaties."

Federalist 70

"Hamilton argues for a single, energetic executive to ensure accountability and effective leadership."

Role of the Speaker of the House

"Leads the House, sets the agenda, assigns bills to committees, and represents the majority party."