Bio-Module6-Chapter15,16,17

anaerobic respiration

cellular respiration using an electron acceptor other than O2.

aerobic respiration:

complete oxidation of glucose to CO2 in the presence of O2, producing ATP.

archaea:

one of two domains of prokaryotes.

autotroph:

organism that produces organic molecules by acquiring carbon from inorganic sources: a primary produces.

bacteria:

one of two domains of prokaryotes.

chemotroph:

organism that derives energy by oxidizing inorganic or organic chemicals.

endosymbiont theory:

the idea that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as free-living bacteria engulfed by other cells.

heterotroph:

organism that obtains carbon and energy by eating another organism: a consumer.

phototroph:

organism that derives energy from sunlight.

prokaryote:

A cell that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-bounded organelles: bacteria and archaea.

protist:

eukaryotic organism that is not a plant, fungus, or animal.

fungi:

kingdom containing mostly multicellular eukaryotes that are heterotrophs by external digestion.

mycelium:

assemblage of hyphae that forms an individual fungus.

hypha (pl. hyphae):

a fungal filament; the basic structural unit of a multicellular fungus.

angiosperms:

a seed plant that produces flowers and fruits: including monocots and eudicots.

bryophytes:

plant that lacks vascular tissue: includes liverworts, hornworts, and mosses.

gymnosperms:

a plant with seeds that are not enclosed in a fruit: includes conifers, ginkgo, gnetophytes, and cycads.

seedless vascular plants:

plant with vascular tissue but not seeds; includes true ferns, club mosses, whisk ferns, and horsetails.

animalia:

kingdom containing multicellular eukaryotes that are heterotrophs by ingestion.

arthropod:

segmented animal with an exoskeleton and joined appendages: phylum Arthropoda.

chordate:

animal that at some time during its development has a notochord. a hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits or pouches, and a postanal tail: phylum Chordate.

mammal:

type of tetrapod vertebrate with hair and mammary glands: embryo is enclosed in an amnion.

primate:

mammal with opposable thumbs, eyes in front of the skull. a relatively large brain. and flat nails instead of claws: includes prosimians, monkeys, and apes.

Vertebrate:

animal with a backbone.

List a logical sequence of evolutionary events that starts with a prokaryote and ends with a multicellular eukaryote.

a) Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) evolved around 3.5 billion years ago.
b) Endosymbiotic event: A prokaryote engulfed another prokaryote, leading to the formation of the first eukaryotic cell with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.
c) Unicellular eukaryotes evolved, including protists.
d) Multicellular eukaryotes evolved from unicellular eukaryotes, first appearing as colonial organisms.
e) Differentiation of cells and tissues led to the development of complex multicellular eukaryotes, such as animals, plants, and fungi.

In what ways are bacteria and archaea important to eukaryotic life in general and to human life in particular?

a) Decomposers: They play crucial roles in recycling nutrients and breaking down organic matter, making nutrients available for other organisms.
b) Producers: Some bacteria and archaea are photosynthetic and contribute to primary production, forming the base of many food chains.
c) Symbiotic relationships: Many eukaryotes, including humans, have symbiotic relationships with bacteria and archaea, which are essential for various processes like digestion, nutrient acquisition, and immune function.
d) Biotechnology: Bacteria and archaea are widely used in biotechnology for the production of foods, drugs, and other industrial products.
e) Ecological roles: They play vital roles in biogeochemical cycles, such as nitrogen fixation, sulfur cycling, and methane production.

What features define the protists? Give examples of different types of protists.

a) Unicellular or simple multicellular organization.
b) Diverse modes of nutrition (autotrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic).
c) Diverse modes of reproduction (asexual, sexual, or both).
d) Diverse habitats (aquatic, terrestrial, or parasitic).

Describe the reproductive adaptations of different groups of land plants.

+Plant reproductive adaptations:
- Bryophytes (spores, alternation of generations),
- seedless vascular plants (sporophyte dominant, spores),
- gymnosperms (naked seeds, wind/insect pollination),
- angiosperms (seeds in fruits, diverse pollination).

How are seedless vascular plants similar to and different from bryophytes? What are differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms?

- Similarities of seedless vascular plants and bryophytes: Alternation of generations, spore reproduction.
- Differences: Vascular tissue in seedless plants, sporophyte vs. gametophyte dominance. Gymnosperm vs. angiosperm: Naked vs. enclosed seeds, pollination modes, flowers.

What features do all animals share in common?

Multicellular, heterotrophic, no cell walls, motility, sexual reproduction, specialized tissues.

Describe the characteristics of chordates. Then, what makes mammals unique from other groups of vertebrates (like fish, amphibians and reptiles).

- Chordate features: Notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal slits/pouches, post-anal tail.
- Mammals: Endothermic, hair, milk, specialized jaws, diaphragm breathing, four-chambered heart.